ERCHANDISE 

MANUAL 
" 


NOTIONS 


SOUDER*   • 


Courtesy   of    Scoville    Manufacturing    Company 

Sailmaker's  Thimble 
Stages  in  the  Manufacture  of  a  Thimble 


MERCHANDISE  MANUAL  SERIES 


NOTIONS 


BY 


M.  ATTIE  SOUDER,  B.S. 

Former  Supervisor  of  Domestic  Art,  Minneapolis 
Public  Scho9ls;  Director  of  Household  Art,  State 
Manual  Training  Normal  College,  Pittsburg,  Kan. 


NEW  YORK 

THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 
1922 


<#. 

Copyright,  1917,  by 
THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1922,  by 

THE  RONALD  PRESS  COMPANY 

All  rights  reserved 


ig  Scries  is  Betu'catcb 


to  Mrs.  Henry  Ollesheimer,  Miss 
Virginia  Potter,  and  Miss  Anne 
Morgan,  who  desiring  to  give 
greater  opportunity  for  advance- 
ment to  commercial  employees  and 
believing  that  all  business  efficiency 
must  rest  upon  a  solid  foundation 
of  training  and  education  gave 
years  of  enthusiastic  service  to  the 
testing  of  this  belief. 


737892 


MERCHANDISE   MANUAL  SERIES 


EDITOR  OF   SERIES 


BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD,   M.A. 

Formerly  Director  of  Department  Store  Courses,  New  York 

University;  Chairman  of  Committee  on  Merchandise  Courses 

for   New  York   City   Public  Schools;    Educational   Director, 

Department  Store  Education  Association 


CONSULTING   EDITOR 

LEE   GALLOWAY,   PH.D. 

Professor  of  Commerce  and  Industry,  Head  of  Department 
of  Management,  and  formerly  Director  of  Training  School 
for  Teachers  of  Retail  ,  Selling.  New  York  University  ; 
formerly  Educational  Director,  the  National  Commercial 
Gas  Association 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

As  "Department  Store  Merchandise  Manuals"  these 
books  were  originally  written  for  salespeople  and  were 
designed  to  give  them  reliable  information  concerning 
the  sources  and  manufacturing  processes  of  the  mer- 
chandise which  they  handle.  When  it  was  necessary 
to  deal  with  scientific  or  historical  material  it  was 
treated  as  simply  and  concretely  as  possible  and  the 
point  of  view  taken  was  that  of  business  rather  than 
that  of  the  school  or  laboratory.  In  this  form  they 
have  proved  their  practical  value  not  only  to  the  de- 
partment store  salesperson  but  in  the  specialty  shop. 
It  has  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  the  material  has 
a  wider  scope  than  that  of  sales  manuals  alone. 

As  reference  books,  librarians  will  find  the  short, 
clear  statements  and  full  indexes  invaluable. 

As  an  encyclopaedia  of  merchandise  the  series  con- 
tains scientific  information  in  a  simple,  compact  form 
which  makes  it  available  for  children  and  others  to 
whom  the  subjects  treated  are  unfamiliar. 

As  textbooks  they  are  adapted  for  use  in  commercial 
schools,  high  schools,  night  schools,  settlement  classes, 
and  by  teachers  of  household  arts  and  domestic  science. 


Vi  EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

As  source  books  for  practical  story-telling,  kinder- 
gartners,  primary  and  vacation  school  teachers  will 
find  in  them  an  abundance  of  interesting  material  for 
short  "true"  stories  on  the  various  industries  and  crafts, 
the  manufacture  of  household  articles,  such  as  pins 
and  needles,  as  well  as  the  making  of  pottery, 
glass,  and  steel.  These  manuals  contain  just  the 
material  often  hunted  for  in  vain  by  teachers  and 
librarians. 

As  household  helps  and  shopping  guides  the  young 
housekeeper  will  find  the  manuals  her  best  friends  be- 
cause they  not  only  describe  the  manufacturing  pro- 
cesses but  tell  her  how  to  distinguish  well-mads  articles 
of  good  materials  from  the  inferior  and  badly  made. 
They  also  tell  her  how  to  care  for  the  clothing  or 
household  goods  which  she  has  bought. 

For  salespeople  and  storekeepers  they  supply  the 
general  and  specific  information  about  their  merchan- 
dise which  is  indispensable  to  efficiency,  yet  very 
hard  to  gather  from  the  scattered  sources  upon  which 
they  now  depend. 

These  changes  should  enlarge  the  usefulness  of  the 
manuals  without  losing  any  of  their  specific  value  in 
the  field  of  salesmanship. 

We  wish  to  express  our  grateful  appreciation  to  the 
manufacturers  and  experts  who  have  given  us  such 
valuable  counsel  and  cordial  co-operation. 

BEULAH  ELFRETH  KENNARD. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

The  merchandise  of  the  Notion  Department  is  so  varied 
that  more  than  two  years  have  been  spent  in  gathering, 
classifying,  and  arranging  the  material  for  this  volume. 
The  work  has  required  trips  through  factories,  talks  and 
correspondence  with  manufacturers  and  merchants,  in- 
vestigation from  the  customer's  point  of  view,  and  prac- 
tical experience  as  a  saleswoman  in  the  Notion  Depart- 
ment. 

The  earlier  inspiration  came  from  Dr.  Jordan,  Super- 
intendent of  the  Minneapolis  Public  Schools,  Miss  Isabel 
Ely  Lord  of  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  and  Dr. 
Abbott  of  Columbia  University,  but  without  the  co- 
operation of  manufacturers  and  business  people  the 
work  could  not  have  been  accomplished.  Acknowledg- 
ment for  valuable  help  is  gratefully  made  to : 

Dayton  Dry  Goods  Co.,  Minneapolis. 

T.  S.  Morgan,  resident  buyer  for  the  Dayton  Co.,  New 
York. 

Warner  Hardware  Company,  Minneapolis. 

Omo  Mfg.   Co.,  Middletown,   Conn.     (Dress  shields.) 

Kleinert  Shield  Co.,  College  Point,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 

T.  M.  Baton  of  the  DeLong  Hook  and  Eye  Co.,  Philadel- 
phia. 

Theo.  H.  Gary  Co.,  67-69  Irving  Place,  N.  Y.    (Hair  nets.) 

Gert  Lumbard  &  Co.,  Chicago.     (Shoe  brushes.) 

vii 


viii  AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

P.  A.  Boyd  of  Everett  &  Barren  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Hamburg  Button  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J.     (Shoe  buttons.) 

Pacific  Novelty  Co.,  New  York. 

Mr.  Callow  of  the  Waldes  Co.,  New  York. 

Mr.  Saunier  of  the  Thread  Agency,  New  York. 

Spool  Cotton  Co.,  O.  N.  T.  Clark  factory. 

American  Pin  Co.,  Waterbury,  Conn. 

Mr.  Bennet  Bronson,  Oakville  Co.,  Oakville,  Conn. 

Wiss  Shear  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Compton  Shear  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Mr.  Graefmiller  of  the  Boker  Cutlery,  New  York. 

Arlington  Co.,  725  Broadway,  New  York.      (Combs.) 

Mr.   Fowler  of  the  Celluloid  Co.,  30  Washington   Place, 

New  York.     (Celluloid  articles.  ) 
Art  in  Buttons,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Milward  Needles  sold  by  the  Spool  Cotton  Co.,  N.  Y. 
C.  H.  Crowley,  N.  Y.     (Needles.) 
White  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  Cleveland. 
Diecherhoff,  Raffloer  &  Co.,  New  York. 
Mr.  A.  Wattert  of  the  American  Mill  Co. 
Messrs.   Merriman   and   Perkins   of   the   M.    Hemingway 

&  Sons. 
Messrs.  Roundy  and  Painter  of  the  Hope  Webbing  Co., 

Providence,  R.  I. 
Mr.  Conrad  of  the  Rhode  Island  Textile  Co.,  Pawtucket, 

R.  I. 
Mr.  John  Crowther  of  the  Shaimock  Narrow  Fabric  Co., 

Pawtucket,  R.  I. 

Narrow  Fabric  Co.,  Reading,  Pa. 
Warren  Featherbone  Co.,  Three  Oaks,  Mich. 
F.  F.  Dalley  Co.,  of  N.  Y.  Inc.     (Shoe  polishes.) 
Mr.  Nutt  of  the  Walk-Over  Shoe  store,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 
Wm.  Bliss  &  Co.,  114  Fifth  Ave.,  New  York. 
Vienna  Button  Factory,  Muscatine,  Iowa. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE  ix 

For  illustrations  thanks  are  due  to  Miss  Helen  Rob- 
erts, American  IVJuseum  of  Natural  History ;  J.  Wiss  and 
Sons  Company,  American  Pin  Company,  Spool  Cotton 
Company,  Crompton  Knowles  Loom  Works,  Warren 
Featherbone  Company,  Omo  Manufacturing  Company, 
Waldes  and  Company,  Scoville  Manufacturing  Company, 
and  Art  in  Buttons. 

M.  ATTIE  SOUDER. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  PAGE 

I     THE    NOTION    DEPARTMENT       ....       I 
Variety  of  Stock 

Necessity  for  Classification  of  Stock 
Divisions  of  the  Department 

PART  I— SEWING  TOOLS  AND  SUPPLIES 

II     SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS 5 

Differences 

Types 

Materials 

Cast  Iron  and  Cast  Steel 

Forged  Steel 

Steel  Laid 

Hardening  and  Tempering 

Grinding 

Assembling  the  Blades 

Plating  and  Final  Assembling 

Comparison  of  Forged  Steel  and  Laid  Steel 

Suggestions  as  to  Care 

"Firsts"  or  Guaranteed  Shears  and  Scissors 

Tests  for  "Seconds" 

Suggestions  to  the  Purchaser 

History 

Modern  Industry 

III     NEEDLES .     .     .     18 

Types 

Hand-Sewing  Needles  —  Materials 
Manufacture  of  Hand-Sewing  Needles 
Standards  in  Hand-Sewing  Needles 
Tests 

Types  of  Hand- Sewing  Needles 
Sizes  of  Hand-Sewing  Needles 
Standards  in  Machine  Needles 
Sizes  of  Machine  Needles 
xi 


xii  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Setting  a  Needle  in  the  Machine 
Manufacture  of  Machine  Needles 
History  of  Needles 

IV    COMMON  PINS       . 28 

Types 

Materials 

Method  of  Manufacture 

Finishing 

Putting  into  Papers 

Cost  of  Production 

How  Sold 

Suggestions  to  Purchaser — Use  of  Each  Type 

Tests 

Qualities  of  a  Good  Brass  Pin 

History 

V    THREAD 35 

Cotton  Thread  — Types 

Raw  Material 

Manufacture  of  Cotton  Thread 

Sewing  Cotton  Standards 

Sizes 

Suggestions  to  the   Purchaser — Manufacturers' 

Tests 

Soft  and  Glace  Finishes 
Mercerized  Thread 
Waxed  Thread 
History  of  Sewing  Cotton 
Basting  Cotton 
Darning  Cotton 
Millinery  Thread 
Silk  Thread  —  Types 
The  Silk  Worm 
Reeling  the  Raw  Silk 
•Silk  Importation 
Manufacture  of  Silk  Thread 
Silk  Dyeing 
Sewing-Machine  Silk 
Hand- Sewing  Silk 
Darning  Silk 
Buttonhole  Twist 


CONTENTS  xiii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Linen  Thread 

Worsted  and  Woolen  Darning  Yarn 

Wool  —  Raw  Material 

Manufacture  of  Worsted  and  Woolen  Yarn 

VI    THIMBLES 52 

Materials 

Methods  of  Manufacture  of  Metal  Thimbles 

Plating 

Aluminum  Thimbles 

Steel  Thimbles 

Solid  Gold  and  Silver  Thimbles 

Celluloid 

Suggestions  to  Purchaser 

Sizes 

History 

Finger  Shields 

VII     MISCELLANEOUS  SEWING  SUPPLIES  ...     57 

Tape  Lines 

Bodkins 

Thread  Winders 

Tatting  Shuttles 

Darners 

Stilettos 

Hem  Gauges 

Tracing  Wheels 

Emeries 

Wax 

Sewing-Machine  Belts 

Machine  Oil 


PART  II— DRESS  ACCESSORIES  AND  FINDINGS 
VIII    TAPES 65 

Types 

Manufacture 
Key  to  Figure  II 
Designs  Made  by  Warp 
Leno  or  Cross  Weave 


xiv  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  pAGE 

False  or  Mock  Leno 

How  to  Distinguish  Warp  Designs 

Designs  Made  by  Extra  Weft 

How  to  Distinguish  Weft  Designs 

How  to  Determine  the  Quality  of  Tape 

Suggestion  to  Purchaser 

List  of  Tapes 

IX    BRAIDS    .     .     .     . 75 

Types 

Origin 

Method  of  Manufacture 

Materials 

Uses  of  Different  Braids  Customer 

List  of  Braids 

X    BELTINGS ^    ^  w  •  .    81 

Types 

Serge  Belting 

Heavy  Woven  Beltings 

Curved  Beltings 

Widths 

Light  Beltings 

XI      BONINGS  AND   STAYS 85 

Importance 

Types 

Whalebone 

Source  of  Whalebone 

Method  of  Sewing  Whalebone  into  a  Waist 

Featherbone 

Method  of  Manufacture  of  Featherbone 

Characteristics  of  Featherbone 

Uncovered  Featherbone 

Covered  Featherbone 

Uses 

Celluloid  Bones 

Corset  Steels 

Collar  Bones  and  Supports 

Collar  Frames 

Net  Guimpes 


CONTENTS  xv 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

XII     ELASTIC  GOODS 95 

Types 

Woven  Elastics 

Materials  in  Woven  Elastics 

Kinds  of  Woven  Elastics 

Garter  and  Hose  Supporter  Elastics 

Corset  Elastics 

Hat  and  Fancy  Elastics 

Girdle  Elastics 

Braided  Elastics 

Materials  in  Braided  Elastics 

Comparison  of  Woven  and  Braided  Elastics 

Uses  of  Elastic 

XIII  RUBBER  GOODS 100 

Types  of  Dress  Shields 

Characteristics  of  a  Good  Shield 

Para  Rubber 

Plantation  Rubber 

Balata 

Manufacture  of  the  Gum  Interlining 

Vulcanization 

Manufacture  of  Water-Proofed  Cloth 

Rubber  Coated  Cloth 

Pyroxylin 

Comparison  of  Shields 

Sizes 

Shapes  and  Styles  of  Shields 

How  to  Sew  in  a  Shield 

Washing  of  Shields 

Standard  Shields 

Sanitary  Goods 

Sanitary  Aprons 

Sanitary  Belts 

Sanitary  Napkins 

XIV  SAFETY  PINS  AND  FANCY  PINS  .     .     .     .   in 

Types  of  Safety  Pins 
Comparison  of  Different  Types 
Qualities  of  a  Good  Safety  Pin 
Manufacture 
History 


xvi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Shield  Pins 

Baby  Pins 

Lingerie  Slides  or  Clasps 

Fancy  Headed  Pins 

Hat  Pins 

XV    HOOKS  AND  EYES  AND  SNAP  FASTENERS      .   116 
Types  of  Hooks  and  Eyes 
Manufacture 
Finishing 

Comparison  of  Brass  and  Iron  Hook  and  Eye 
Styles 
Sizes 

How  Sold 

Sewing  on  Hooks  and  Eyes 
Hook  and  Eye  Tape 
History 

Snap  Fasteners 
Types  of  Snap  Fasteners 
Manufacture 
Sizes  of  Snap  Fasteners 
Comparison  of   Grades 

XVI     MISCELLANEOUS  DRESS  FINDINGS  .     .     .125 
Dress  Weights 
Cordings 

Cuff  and  Collar  Buttons 
Bachelor  Buttons 
Neck  Bands 


PART  III— HAIR  GOODS  AND  SHOE  SUPPLIES 

XVII     HAIR  GOODS      .     .     .     .     .     ,     .     .     .129 
Imitation  Shell  Goods 
Celluloid 

How  Celluloid  is  Made 
Side-  or  Back-Combs 
Sawed  Tooth  Combs 


CHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


Cut  Tooth  Combs 

Pressed  or  Molded  Combs 

Comparison 

Decoration  of  Combs 

Finishing  of  Combs 

Barrettes 

Imitation  Shell  Hairpins 

Wire  Hairpins 

Types  of  Hair  Nets 

Human  Hair  Nets 

Colors  of  Human  Hair  Nets 

Packing  of  Human  Hair  Nets 

Sources  of  Human  Hair  Nets 

Si11-  Nets 

Styles  of  Silk  Hair  Nets 

Hair  Curlers 

Hair  Curling  Irons 


XVll 

PAGE 


XVIII     SHOE  SUPPLIES 


143 


Shoe  Brushes 

Bristle  or  Hair  Brushes 

Drawing  Bristles  into  Frame 

Other  Processes 

Daubers 

Felt  Brushes 

Shoe  Buttons 

Shoe  Horns 

Buttonhooks 

Shoe  and  Slipper  Trees 

Types  of  Shoe  Dressings 

Cleaning  Preparations 

Polishing  Preparations 

Coloring  and  Dyeing  Preparations 

Enameling  Preparations 


PART  IV— BUTTONS 


XIX    TYPES  OF  BUTTONS 
Material 


155 


XV111 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 


PAGE 


Methods  of  Attaching 
History  of  Buttons 


XX     PEARL  BUTTONS 158 

Kinds  of  Pearl  Buttons 

Fresh   Water   Pearl   Buttons — Source  of   Raw 

Material 

Methods  of  Fishing 
Cleaning  and  Sorting  of  Shells 
History    of    the    Fresh    Water    Pearl    Button 

Industry 

Manufacture  of  Fresh  Water  Pearl  Buttons 
Salt  Water  or  Ocean  Pearl  Buttons 
Method  of  Fishing 

Method  of  Manufacture  of  Pearl  Buttons 
Distinguishing   Salt   Water   and    Fresh   Water 

Pearl  Buttons 
Grading  of  Pearl  Buttons 

XXI     VEGETABLE  IVORY  BUTTONS       .      .     .      .170 

Source  of  Raw  Material 

Method  of  Manufacture 

Sizes  of  Buttons 

How  to  Distinguish  a  Vegetable  Ivory  Button 

History  of  the  Vegetable  Ivory  Button 

XXII     MISCELLANEOUS  KINDS  OF  BUTTONS     .      .   177 

Composition  Buttons 

Hard  Rubber  Buttons 

Horn  Buttons 

Bone  Buttons 

Galilith 

Glass  and  Agate  Buttons 

Vulcanized  Fiber 

Metal  Buttons 

Cloth-Covered  Buttons 

Celluloid  Buttons 

Bachelor  Buttons 

PART  V— CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  OF 
NOTION  DEPARTMENT  ..         188 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Sailmaker's  Thimble  . .     Frontispiece 

Stages  in  the  Manufacture  of  a  Thimble  .     .     .     Frontispiece 


FIGURE 

I.  Steel    Forging 


Principal  Processes 

in  the 
Manufacture 

of  Shears 
and  Scissors 


FACING    PAGE 
8 


2.  Welding 

3.  Hardening 

4.  Grinding 

5.  Finishing 

6.  From  Bar  of  Steel  to  Finished  Blade 12 

7.  Ancient  Needles  and  Pins 26 

8.  Sizes  of  Common  Pins (on  page)  31 

9.  Ancient  Peruvian  Work  Basket 36 

10.  Combed  and  Uncombed  Cotton  Thread 36 

11.  Common  Varieties  of  Tapes 66 

12.  Narrow  Fabric  Loom 70 

13.  Right  Whale  from  Whose  Mouth  Whalebone  Is  Taken     .  88 

14.  Process  of  Making  Featherbone 88 

15.  Styles  of  Shields (on  page)  107 


16.  Construction  of  Two  Types  of  Dome-Socket  Snap 
Fasteners 


122 


17.  Steps  in  the  Manufacture  of  Vegetable  Ivory  Buttons    .    172 

18.  Making   Jet  and   Pressed   Glass    Buttons 182 


xix 


NOTIONS 

Chapter  I 

THE   NOTION   DEPARTMENT 

Variety  of  Stock 

The  Notion  Department  contains  merchandise 
assembled  according  to  its  uses  and  made  of  the  most 
varied  materials.  To  most  people  it  looks  like  a  mix- 
ture of  small  articles  which  have  no  relation  to  each 
other.  It  sometimes  seems  to  be  the  place  for  all  the 
things  that  cannot  be  classified  under  any  other  name. 

In  spite  of  its  variety,  however,  the  stock  of  this 
department  can  be  divided  into  groups  which  are  clear 
enough  to  the  salesperson  if  not  to  the  customer.  The 
articles  are  small,  but  they  illustrate  the  importance 
of  small  things  as  they  may  perfect  a  beautiful  cos- 
tume. 

In  studying  this  department,  therefore,  one  should 
have  a  clear  idea  of  the  different  divisions  of  the 


2  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

stock;  the  things  contained  in  each  division,  and  the 
changes  in  fashion  which  make  changes  necessary  in 
these  important  trifles. 

Necessity  for  Classification  of  Stock 

A  classification  of  stock  is  nowhere  more  necessary, 
as  it  aids  in  finding  articles  quickly  and  in  suggestive 
selling.  A  knowledge  of  conveniences  which  are  just 
being  introduced  in  the  store  or  of  changes  in  dress 
accessories  which  are  suitable  for  a  new  style  of  collar 
or  girdle  or  skirt  will  not  only  make  extra  sales  but 
will  give  the  customer  added  interest  in  the  depart- 
ment. 

Every  one  likes  to  hear  of  new  ideas  in  the  line  of 
their  work,  and  both  dressmakers  and  women  who 
make  their  own  clothes  are  eager  to  know  the  latest 
style  even  if  they  do  not  immediately  adopt  it. 

Experience  is  a  good  teacher,  but  it  is  not  always 
reliable  unless  one  has  some  standard  to  use  as  a  guide. 
Some  people  get  one  idea  from  a  certain  experience 
while  their  neighbors  get  an  entirely  different  one  be- 
cause their  minds  work  differently.  Discussions  of 
one's  own  experience  with  some  one  else  is  always 
helpful.  That  which  we  call  knowledge  or  science  is 
simply  the  combined  experience  of  many  people  ex- 
pressed by  some  one  who  can  state  it  in  a  clear  and 
orderly  manner. 


INTRODUCTORY  3 

Arrangement  of  one's  stock  is  not  very  different 
from  the  arrangement  of  one's  ideas.  Every  time  we 
put  a  thing  where  it  belongs  we  see  more  clearly  its 
use  and  its  relation  to  other  things  around  it.  If  there 
are  a  number  of  articles  in  one  class  but  all  slightly 
different  from  one  another  in  style,  or  size,  or  ma- 
terial, it  is  well  to  keep  these  differences  in  mind  and, 
when  possible,  the  suitability  of  each  for  certain  pur- 
poses. This  kind  of  knowledge  is  what  distinguishes 
the  saleswoman  from  the  "  counter  server." 

Divisions  of  the  Department 

We  may  divide  the  Notion  Department  into  six 
general  sections,  though  no  two  stores  make  exactly 
the  same  divisions  or  include  all  of  the  same  articles. 

These  sections  are : 

Sewing  Tools  and  Supplies 

Dress  Accessories  and  Findings 

Hair  Goods 

Shoe  Supplies 

Sundries 

Buttons 


Part  I — Sewing  Tools  and  Supplies 


INTRODUCTORY  TO  PART  I 

The  variety  of  articles  in  the  sewing  tools  and  sup- 
plies division  is  so  familiar  to  both  saleswoman  and 
customer  that  these  goods  are  often  sold  and  bought 
with  very  little  consideration  of  their  quality,  service- 
ability, or  special  adaptability  to  the  purchaser's  needs. 

They  are,  however,  of  greater  importance  to  the 
comfort  and  satisfaction  of  the  woman  who  makes 
clothing  than  many  more  costly  articles. 

Scissors  and  shears  with  a  fine  cutting  edge,  needles 
of  the  right  size,  and  pins  suitable  for  the  dressmaker's 
purpose  are  matters  which  will  make  the  nervous  oc- 
cupation of  sewing  easy;  while  dull  scissors,  needles 
too  small  or  too  large,  and  pins  which  bend  or  rust 
make  it  unnecessarily  hard.  Machine  oils,  thread, 
and  silk  are  equally  important. 

The  saleswoman  who  has  learned  to  judge  the 
qualities  of  her  merchandise  because  she  knows  how 
it  is  made  and  what  are  the  standards  of  the  manu- 
facturers, may  be  helpful  to  all  her  customers  and  in- 
crease the  reputation  of  the  store  for  expert  service. 

4 


Chapter  II 

SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS 

Differences 

Shears  and  scissors,  although  similar  in  purpose, 
have,  as  recognized  by  the  trade,  certain  well-defined 
characteristics.  Shears  are  usually  more  than  5^2 
inches  long,  with  handles  differing  both  in  size  and 
shape ;  the  one  handle  round  to  fit  the  thumb,  and  the 
other  oval  to  fit  the  fingers.  Scissors  are  less  than 
7  inches  in  length  and  have  ring  handles  of  the  same 
size. 

Types 

There  are  many  different  makes  of  shears  and  scis- 
sors and  a  great  variety  of  styles,  but  there  are  only 
four  distinct  types,  as  follows: 

Cast  iron,  made  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
Cast  steel,  made  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
Forged  steel,  originally  made  in  Europe;  now 

made  in  the  United  States. 
Steel  laid,  made  in  the  United  States. 
5 


6  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Materials 

Shears  and  scissors  are  primarily  tools  for  cutting, 
and  as  such  their  most  important  requisite  is  a  material 
that  will  give  this  quality.  Steel  and  iron  are  best 
adapted  for  this  purpose.  The  various  forms  used  are 
cast  iron,  cast  steel,  malleable  iron,  and  crucible  carbon 
steel. 

Cast  iron  is  pig  iron  melted  and  molded  into  shape. 
It  contains  3  per  cent  carbon  or  more.  Cast  iron 
makes  the  poorest  grade  of  scissors  and  shears.  It  is 
brittle,  breaks  easily,  and  neither  takes  nor  keeps  a 
good  cutting  edge. 

Cast  steel  contains  a  smaller  amount  of  carbon  and 
can  be  made  into  a  better  looking  tool. 

Malleable  iron  differs  from  cast  iron  in  that  it  con- 
tains very  little  carbon,  has  greater  strength,  and  can 
be  altered  in  shape  by  hammering.  It  has  been  used 
very  extensively  for  the  handles  and  backs  of  steel  laid 
shears. 

Crucible  carbon  steel  is  very  strong  and  very  hard, 
which  makes  it  possible  to  preserve  a  fine  cutting  edge 
on  a  tool.  It  is  always  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
high  grade  forged  steel  scissors  and  shears,  and  for 
the  blades  of  the  steel  laid. 

Cast  Iron  and  Cast  Steel 

Cast  iron  and  steel  shears  and  scissors  are  made,  as. 


SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS  7 

the  name  indicates,  by  casting  or  running  molten  metal 
into  forms  or  molds  of  sand;  this  method  produces  the 
cheapest  grades  of  shears  and  scissors,  good  only  for 
paper  cutting.  The  cast  iron  are  apt  to  break  when 
dropped  or  subjected  to  abrupt  changes  of  ternperature. 
Cast  steel  is  somewhat  better,  especially  in  finish,  but 
although  made  of  steel,  it  is  an  inferior  grade  that  does 
not  temper  well,  so  that  the  cutting  edge  does  not  re- 
main sharp  so  long  as  in  the  forged  steel  or  the  laid 
steel  types. 

Forged  Steel 

High-grade  shears  and  scissors  are  either  forged 
steel  or  laid  steel. 

In  the  forged  steel  type  the  entire  tool  is  made  of 
crucible  carbon  steel.  This  is  an  expensive  and  dif- 
ficult process.  The  Germans  have  excelled  in  this, 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  for  generations  they 
worked  under  the  home  industry  system,  where  a  given 
family  took  a  specific  part  in  the  manufacturing,  thus 
learning  secrets  of  the  best  methods  and  acquiring 
great  skill  in  execution. 

The  first  step  in  the  manufacture  of  the  forged  steel 
shears  is  making  the  blanks,  the  first  shaping  of  the 
metal  into  blade  form.  This  is  done  by  a  die.  The 
upper  plate  of  the  die  which  is  very  heavily  weighted  is 
dropped  upon  the  bar  of  steel  which  lies  upon  the  under 


8  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

plate.  (See  Figure  i.)  This  weight  is  raised  and 
lowered  upon  the  bar  many  times,  making  each  time 
something  that  looks  a  little  more  like  a  half  of  a  pair 
of  scissors  or  shears.  From  this  point  on  the  process  is 
very  similar  to  the  treatment  of  steel  laid  blanks,  and 
will  be  described  later. 

Steel  Laid 

For  the  steel  laid  shears,  only  the  cutting  part  of 
the  blade  is  made  of  the  fine  grade  carbon  steel,  and 
this  is  welded  to  the  back  or  frame  of  the  blade.  In 
the  early  manufacture  of  this  type,  the  back  or  frame 
was  of  malleable  iron  and  the  two  metals  were  welded 
together  by  very  great  heat  and  pressure.  This  pro- 
cess made  very  good  shears,  but  they  were  not  entirely 
satisfactory  because  the  handles  were  liable  to  break, 
and  the  steel  and  iron  to  separate  if  the  shears  were 
dropped  or  carelessly  used.  Now  the  best  American 
shears  are  made  of  fine  crucible  carbon  steel  welded 
to  a  stout,  tough  steel  frame.  ( See  Figure  2. ) 

For  the  making  of  these  frames  a  forging  machine 
is  used  which  is  similar  in  construction  to  the  German 
machine  used  for  forged  steel,  but  is  much  larger  and 
heavier.  The  metal  weight  weighs  some  twenty  tons 
and  so  it  is  not  necessary  to  drop  it  on  the  bar  of  steel 
so  many  times  to  forge  the  blanks  or  frames.  This 
machine  is  especially  adapted  for  making  heavy  shears. 


Figure  i.     Steel  Forging 


J 


Figure  2.     Welding  Figure  3.     Hardening 

Courtesy  of  J.  Wiss  and  Sons  Company 
PRINCIPAL  PROCESSES  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHEARS  AND   SCISSORS 

(See  also  figures  facing  page  12.) 


SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS  9 

The  tailors'  shears  are  the  most  striking  example  of 
this  heavy  type,  some  of  them  being  18  inches  long. 
But  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  making  the  lighter 
weight  tools.  The  German  manufacturers  maintain 
that  the  use  of  the  heavy  weights  or  drops  takes  the 
life  out  of  the  steel;  that,  although  it  is  necessary  to 
give  the  scissors  more  blows  with  the  lighter  weight 
drop,  a  better  tool  is  produced. 

After  the  blanks  are  made  the  succeeding  processes 
for  forged  and  laid  steel  are  practically  alike. 

First  the  surplus  metal  is  removed.  Next  the  holes 
for  the  screws  which  join  the  blades  are  ground  in. 
This  is  a  very  particular  process,  since  the  slightest 
variation  may  ruin  a  pair  of  shears. 

Hardening  and  Tempering 

Following  this  conies  the  hardening  and  tempering. 
The  blades  are  heated  to  a  given  degree  of  temperature 
and  then  plunged  into  cold  running  water  or  oil,  which 
hardens  them  and  makes  them  very  brittle.  The  brit- 
tleness  is  removed  by  tempering,  that  is,  reheating  in 
air  or  liquid  at  3300°  C.  Probably  no  other  processes 
are  more  important  than  these  two,  for  upon  them 
depends  the  lasting  and  fine  cutting  qualities  of  the 
edge.  If  one  blade  is  in  the  slightest  degree  harder 
than  the  other  it  cuts  into  the  softer  one,  thus  ruining 
the  cutting  edge.  With  tempering  and  hardening  the 


10  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

blade  becomes  warped  and  must  be  straightened,  which 
is  done  by  placing  it  on  an  anvil  and  bringing  it  into 
proper  shape  with  many  light  taps  of  the  hammer. 
Still  it  is  a  long  way  from  the  finely  finished  product. 
(See  Figure  3.) 

Grinding 

The  next  process,  grinding,  gives  it  a  more  shapely 
appearance.  Each  man  grinds  only  one  part  of  the 
hundreds  and  hundreds  of  blades  given  him.  Another 
man  grinds  another  part,  and  so  on,  making  many 
different  handlings.  In  one  factory  a  man  was  found 
who  for  twelve  years  had  done  only  one  kind  of 
grinding  on  just  one  part  of  the  blade.  He  could 
grind  8,000  blades  per  day.  Years  ago  grinding  was 
very  dangerous  work,  for  the  flying  particles  of  grind- 
stone and  steel  would  lodge  in  the  worker's  lungs,  but 
now  there  is  a  suction  arrangement  under  efech  wheel 
which  draws  the  flying  particles  away  from  the  man. 
The  diameter  of  the  grindstone  when  new  is  ap- 
proximately six  feet,  but  within  a  couple  of  days  it 
is  literally  ground  away.  (See  Figure  4.) 

Assembling  the  Blades 

All  the  processes  from  the  bar  of  steel  through  the 
grinding  have  dealt  with  the  blades  singly.  Now  the 
blades  are  matched,  screwed  together,  and  carefully 


SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS  II 

adjusted,  thus  making  a  pair  of  shears  or  scissors. 
However,  for  a  number  of  processes  that  follow,  it  is 
necessary  to  separate  the  blades,  and  in  order  to  re- 
assemble them  easily,  the  operator  places  a  number 
or  identification  mark  on  the  inside  of  each  blade  of 
the  same  pair  near  the  screw  hole. 

Plating  and  Final  Assembling 

After  the  blades  are  taken  apart,  all  the  minor 
irregularities  and  roughness  left  by  grinding  are  re- 
moved by  polishing;  after  which  the  blades  are  im- 
mersed in  a  strong  hot  alkali  solution  which  acts  as 
a  cleansing  agent  preparatory  to  the  nickel-plating. 
The  plating  is  done  by  an  electrical  process.  The 
handles  of  some  are  japanned,  that  is,  coated  with  a 
thick,  black,  hard  varnish,  and  baked. 

Again  the  blades  are  reassembled.  Simply  to  say 
that  they  are  polished,  adjusted  perfectly,  and  in- 
spected, sounds  like  a  very  simple  task;  but  in  reality 
it  is  very  exacting,  accurate,  and  painstaking.  The 
best  pair  of  shears  may  be  ruined  by  the  slightest 
irregularity  in  adjustment.  It  is  said  that  the  men 
who  do  the  adjusting  and  inspecting  show  a  very 
greatly  decreasing  ability  if  they  are  subjected  to  any 
unusually  strenuous  exercise,  like  baseball  playing. 
Intoxication  is  disastrous.  It  takes  years  of  experi- 
ence to  become  efficient.  (See  Figure  5.) 


12  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Final  inspection  is  done  in  the  packing  room,  usually 
by  women.  Then  the  shears  and  scissors  are  oiled, 
wrapped,  and  packed. 

Comparison  of  Forged  Steel  and  Laid  Steel 

The  best  light  scissors  are  made  of  forged  steel, 
while  the  best  heavy  shears  are  steel  laid.  In  the 
larger  scissors  from  4%  to  7  inches  long  and  in  the 
smaller  shears  there  is  little  choice  between  the  forged 
steel  and  steel  laid  of  corresponding  grades,  although, 
speaking  in  very  general  terms,  a  better  tool  of  this 
size  can  be  sold  for  a  moderate  price  in  the  steel  laid. 
If  a  very  finely  finished  tool  is  desired,  forged  steel 
has  the  advantage.  The  steel  laid  is  strictly  an 
American  product,  while  the  forged  steel  is  made  both 
in  Germany  and  in  the  United  States. 

Suggestions  as  to  Care 

Always  keep  shears  and  scissors  in  closed  cases. 

Always  before  handing  the  purchaser  a  pair  of 
shears  or  scissors,  run  your  thumb  and  first  finger 
along  the  inside  of  the  blades  to  remove  all  dust.  This 
will  give  more  perfect  action  to  them  and  also  help 
to  keep  a  good  cutting  edge. 

"Firsts"  or  Guaranteed  Shears  and  Scissors 

"Firsts"  are  those  shears  and  scissors  that  have 
passed  satisfactorily  all  the  tests  of  the  manufacturer. 


Figure  4.     Grinding 


Figure  5.     Finishing 


Figure  6.     From  Bar  of  Steel  to  Finished  Blade 

Courtesy  of  J.  Wiss  and  Sons   Company 
PRINCIPAL  PROCESSES  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS 

(See  also  figures   facing  page  8.) 


SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS  13 

Generally  speaking  they  bear  the, manufacturer's  trade- 
mark and  that  means  that  the  producer  guarantees  the 
tool. 

Tests  for  "Seconds" 

If  it  is  the  policy  of  a  store  to  sell  seconds,  that 
is,  shears  and  scissors  which  have  some  imperfection 
and  hence  rejected  by  the  factory  inspector  as  not  up 
to  standard,  then  it  is  very  essential  that  the  sales- 
woman know  how  to  test  them.  Since  seconds  are 
never  guaranteed  by  the  manufacturer,  the  saleswoman 
herself  should  know  the  type  to  which  the  tool  belongs, 
how  to  determine  a  good  cutting  edge  and  how  to 
correct  the  adjustment. 

For  determining  a  good  cutting  edge,  the  method 
used  in  the  factory  is  simple  and  accurate.  The  in- 
spector cuts  through  a  number  of  layers  of  cotton 
flannel,  the  thickness  depending  on  the  kind  and  size 
of  the  shears  or  scissors  tested.  If  there  is  the 
slightest  catch,  they  are  discarded  or  returned  for  more 
perfect  finishing. 

To  test  for  adjustment,  hold  the  shears  or  scissors 
to  the  light,  so  that  you  can  see  between  the  two  blades. 
In  a  perfectly  adjusted  pair  of  shears  or  scissors,  the 
blades  will  touch  only  at  the  points  and  the  bearings 
where  the  screw  is  put  in.  Between  these  two  points 
is  an  open  space,  varying  in  width,  but  being  widest 
just  midway. 


14  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

The  third  point  is  the  determination  of  the  type, 
steel  laid,  forged  steel,  cast  steel,  or  cast  iron.  It  is 
not  good  salesmanship  to  sell  a  customer  a  steel  laid 
or  forged  steel  type  when  a  cast  steel  or  cast  iron  type 
would  serve  the  purchaser's  purpose  just  as  well  or 
better. 

To  distinguish  forged  steel  from  steel  laid  is  dif- 
ficult, but  to  explain  how  to  do  it  is  more  difficult. 
However,  the  following  suggestion  will  help:  Look 
carefully  at  the  outside  of  the  blade  about  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  from  the  cutting  edge.  If  you  find  tiny 
dots  or  marks  at  intervals  you  are  safe  in  inferring 
that  it  is  a  laid  steel  shear,  the  dots  or  imperfections 
showing  where  the  steel  blade  and  frame  are  joined. 

The  cheaper  scissors  and  shears,  like  cast  iron  or 
cast  steel,  usually  have  a  rivet  to  hold  the  blades  to- 
gether, while  in  all  high-grade  tools,  the  blades  are 
held  together  by  a  screw. 

Suggestions  to  the  Purchaser 

The  saleswoman  who  induces  a  customer  to  keep  a 
pair  of  cheap  shears  for  paper  cutting  and  thereby 
save  the  better  ones  is  performing  a  distinct  service 
for  that  woman.  Furthermore,  the  service  is  in- 
creased if  she  induces  the  customer  to  provide  special 
tools  for  special  cases,  since  the  average  household 
needs  a  pair  of  good  shears  7  to  8  inches  long,  a  pair 


SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS  15 

of  scissors  4  to  6  inches  long,  and  a  pair  of  short, 
sharp-pointed  scissors  for  clipping  basting  threads  and 
ripping.  In  many  cases  the  addition  of  embroidery 
and  buttonhole  scissors  proves  economical.  Blunt- 
pointed  scissors  are  made  for  men  to  carry  in  their 
pockets  and  for  children  to  use  in  cutting.  Shears 
and  scissors  come  in  nests  of  from  2  to  6  of  varying 
sizes  which  are  very  convenient. 

A  good  tool  with  proper  care  will  give  practically 
perfect  service,  but  even  the  best  tool,  not  so  cared 
for,  is  apt  to  prove  a  bad  sale  for  the  saleswoman  and 
the  store;  therefore,  the  following  few  suggestions  as 
to  the  care  of  shears  and  scissors  will  be  of  assistance. 

Shears  and  scissors  should  never  be  dropped  on  the 
floor. 

When  cutting,  a  long  stroke  or  cut  is  desired  for 
two  reasons:  a  greater  leverage  is  obtained,  thus 
lessening  the  strain  on  the  shears,  and  a  straighter  cut 
edge  is  made  on  the  material. 

When  shears  and  scissors  are  not  to  be  used  for 
some  time  it  is  wise  to  keep  them  in  a  chamois  or  felt 
case,  to  prevent  rusting. 

They  should  never  be  allowed  to  lie  around,  but 
should  always  be  hung  up,  or  put  away  in  a  case. 

Shears  and  scissors  must  be  sharpened  at  intervals. 
This  must  be  done  skilfully,  as  one  case  of  poor 
sharpening  may  quite  ruin  a  pair.  Usually  a  first- 


16  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

rate  tool  sharpener  may  be  found  in  a  good  hardware 
store.  Frequently  a  barber  will  do  it  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. 

A  drop  of  oil  at  the  screw  between  the  blades  will 
make  the  shears  work  more  smoothly. 

The  freer  the  blades  can  be  kept  from  dust  or  rust, 
the  better  they  will  cut.  If  the  purchaser  would  run 
her  first  finger  and  thumb  over  the  inside  of  the  blades 
each  time  she  used  her  pair,  she  would  have  increased 
service  at  no  expense,  just  as  the  saleswoman  in  doing 
the  same,  is  apt  to  present  her  article  in  better  shape 
and  thus  gain  increased  sales. 

History 

The  words  shears  and  scissors,  although  derived 
from  different  roots,  have  practically  the  same  original 
meaning.  Scissors  come  from  the  latin  "  scinders," 
meaning  to  cut  or  cleave,  while  the  word  "  shears  "  is 
traced  back  through  the  old  English  "  sceran,"  mean- 
ing to  cut  or  clip,  to  the  old  Teutonic  language  to  the 
root  "  skar,"  to  cut. 

All  the  earlier  forms  of  shears  and  scissors  re- 
sembled the  modern  scissors.  Bronze  scissors  were 
made  as  early  as  1000  to  1500  B.  c.  by  the  Chaldeans 
and  Egyptians.  Steel  scissors  were  made  by  the 
Romans  about  800  B.  c.  In  very  early  times  they  were 
wrought  out  of  steel  by  the  Chinese. 


SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS  I? 

Modern  Industry 

Shears  as  the  trade  now  designates  them  were  first 
made  in  the  United  States.  Seventy-five  years  ago 
Mr.  Heinisch  established  a  factory  at  Newark,  New 
Jersey,  and  it  was  there  that  the  first  steel  laid  shears 
were  made.  Progress  and  improvement  have  marked 
the  industry  in  America.  Even  now,  however,  there 
is  a  rather  prevalent  impression  that  the  finest  shears 
and  scissors  are  "  made  in  Germany,"  but  this  idea  as 
to  fine  ware  is  no  longer  entirely  justified.  Today  the 
American  made  product  not  only  equals  the  imported, 
except  possibly  in  some  of  the  lighter  scissors  and 
fancy  goods,  but  in  the  large-sized  shears  it  surpasses 
the  foreign  makes.  The  magnitude  of  the  industry  in 
America  is  apparent  when  one  knows  that  one  factory 
alone  makes  over  500  varieties  of  shears  and  scissors, 
ranging  from  the  most  delicate  little  manicure  and 
embroidery  scissors  to  the  heavy  pruning  and  tailor 
shears.  There  are  90  different  operations  in  the  mak- 
ing of  one  pair  and  some  500  handlings. 


Chapter  III 

NEEDLES 

Types 

Needles  are  indispensable  tools  in  sewing.  They 
may  be  divided  into  two  groups  according  to  their  use : 

Hand-Sewing  Needles 
Machine-Sewing  Needles 

Hand-Sewing  Needles  —  Material 

The  best  needles  are  manufactured  from  a  fine  grade 
of  carbon  steel,  which  gives  them  toughness  and 
strength  and  yet  allows  them  to  be  sharply  pointed. 
All  the  best  needles  are  manufactured  at  Redditch, 
England. 

Manufacture  of  Hand-Sewing  Needles 

The  modern  manufacture  of  needles  presupposes  a 
great  mass  of  specialized  machinery  and  a  high  degree 
of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman  in  some  of  the 
processes.  The  raw  material  comes  in  the  form  of 
great  coils  of  steel  wire  of  the  desired  size.  As  two 
needles  are  made  at  once,  this  wire  is  cut  into  pieces 
twice  the  length  of  a  needle.  It  is  straightened  and 

18 


NEEDLES  19 

both  ends  are  pointed.  The  first  pointing  is  done  au- 
tomatically by  machinery.  Next  the  center  of  the 
wire  is  flattened  and  the  two  eyes  are  pressed  in,  after 
which  the  two  needles  are  broken  apart.  Hardening 
and  tempering  follow.  (See  Chapter  II,  "  Shears  and 
Scissors  "  for  detailed  description  of  hardening  and 
tempering.)  These  two  processes  are  very  exact  and 
most  important,  for  upon  them  largely  depends  the 
sharpness  of  the  point  and  the  strength  of  the  needle. 
After  these,  comes  the  burnishing  of  the  eyes  so  that 
the  thread  will  not  be  cut.  Then  the  point  must  be 
made  perfect.  A  skilled  grinder  will  point  100,000 
needles  per  day.  Even  now,  with  all  known  pre- 
cautions such  as  the  use  of  vacuum  systems  that  draw 
the  flying  particles  of  steel  away  from  the  operator 
and  other  devices  for  his  protection,  the  grinding  of 
the  points  remains  a  very  dangerous  operation.  It 
also  demands  a  high  degree  of  skill. 

The  finishing  processes  of  scouring  and  polishing 
make  the  needles  ready  for  inspection.  They  are 
then  sorted  and  stuck  in  papers  which  are  folded  and 
labeled.  Out  of  $75  worth  of  steel  wire  about  $1,000 
worth  of  needles  is  manufactured.  When  one  con- 
siders the  apparent  simplicity  of  the  needle,  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  believe  that  it  must  pass  through  the  hands 
of  a  hundred  skilled  workmen,  and  that  its  journey 
through  the  factory  takes  from  6  to  8  weeks. 


20  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Standards  in  Hand-Sewing  Needles 

The  best  hand-sewing  needles  are  all  imported.  The 
Roberts,  Kirby  Beard,  Crowley,  and  Milward  needles 
rank  among  the  standards.  In  quantities  they  come 
25  needles  to  a  package,  40  packages  or  1,000  needles 
in  a  bundle. 

Tests  „ 

There  are  three  most  important  points  to  consider  in 
judging  a  needle.  First,  comes  the  matter  of  temper. 
A  good  needle  should  neither  bend  nor  break  easily. 
When  one  is  selling  needles  for  the  use  of  children, 
it  is  best  to  advise  a  make  that  will  bend  just  before 
the  breaking  point.  Broken  pieces  of  sharp  steel  are 
far  more  dangerous  than  a  bent  needle.  A  second 
point  is  the  condition  of  the  needle.  Carelessly  finished 
needles  may  have  a  rough  eye  which  cuts  the  thread. 
A  good  needle  when  rolled  on  a  flat  surface  will  be 
straight.  A  third  consideration  is  the  point,  which  of 
course  must  be  perfect. 

Types  of  Hand-Sewing  Needles 

In  designs  and  shapes  there  is  an  almost  unlim- 
ited variety,  a  type  for  every  kind  of  work.  The 
following  are  the  best  known  and  most  frequently 
used: 


NEEDLES  21 

Type  Size  Description  Use 

'  Sharps       00-12  Medium  length.  Ordinary  sew- 

ing. 

Betweens  00-12  Shorter  than  sharps.      Tailors*. 
Millinery      i-io  Extra  long.  Milliners'    and 

for  basting. 
Crewel         1-12  Very  large  eye.   Length 

same  as  sharps.  Embroidery. 

Chenille     18-28  Very  large  eye. 
Tapestry    18-28  Large  eye;  blunt  end. 
Darners       i-io  Large  eye.  Darning. 

For  those  who  find  threading  a  needle  difficult,  the 
Milward  Company  put  out  a  variety  with  what  they 
call  the  calyx  eye,  an  eye  which  has  a  slit  in  it,  through 
which  the  thread  can  be  slipped. 

Sizes  of  Hand-Sewing  Needles 

Next  to  the  suitability  of  the  type  of  needle  for  a 
given  kind  of  work,  the  size  is  of  great  importance. 
The  same  size  in  all  makes  of  needles,  however,  does 
not  carry  the  same  size  of  thread.  For  example,  the 
eye  of  the  Crowley  needle  of  a  given  number  is  larger 
than  in  the  Milward  and  Roberts.  There  is  a  swell 
in  the  central  part  of  this  needle  which  makes  a  space 
in  the  cloth  so  that  the  eye  of  the  needle  with  the 
thread  passes  through  with  ease.  Therefore,  one  can 
use  a  smaller  size  needle  of  the  Crowley  than  in  the 
other  makes.  The  smaller  the  needle,  the  larger  the 


22  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

number  and  vice  versa.  The  following  chart  gives 
approximately  the  size  of  needle  best  adapted  for  dif- 
ferent sizes  in  thread,  both  cotton  and  silk: 

Six-Cord 

Needles  Cotton  Thread            Silk  Thread 

No.  i  Nos.     5  and     10  D 

2  10  and     12  D 

3  12  and     16  C 

4  20  and    24  C 

5  30  and     36  B 

6  36  and    40  B 

7  40  and    50  A 

8  50  and    60  A 

9  60  and     70  O 

10  80  and    90  O 

11  90  and  120  OO 

12  120  and  200  OOO 

Standards  in  Machine  Needles 

Sewing-machine  needles  are  perhaps  the  cause  of 
more  real  trouble  to  the  sewing-machine  manufacturer 
and  to  the  consumer  than  any  other  sewing-machine 
accessory.  The  various  makes  of  sewing-machines  call 
for  different  sizes  and  shapes  of  needles.  Therefore, 
it  should  be  impressed  upon  the  purchaser  that  she 
should  buy  needles  of  reliable  make  with  the  name  of 
the  machine  stamped  on  the  shank  of  the  needle,  a 
custom  followed  by  all  reputable  manufacturers.  But 
this  is  not  always  possible,  for  all  sewing-machine  fac- 


NEEDLES  23 

lories  put  out  many  machines  of  the  same  model  under 
different  names.  These  names  are  often  put  on  to 
suit  a  merchant's  ideas  and  sometimes  they  are  confined 
to  a  local  district.  In  view  of  this  fact  the  difficulty 
of  getting  the  proper  needle  for  a  machine  not  marked 
with  the  factory's  name  is  very  great.  Consequently, 
a  number  of  needle  manufacturers  have  classified  all 
the  different  makes  of  machines  (approximately  8,000) 
arid  make  needles  for  each  of  the  types  of  machines. 
The  Boye  and  Crowley  needle  outfits  are  put  up  in  a 
large  circular  cabinet,  with  needles  of  different  sizes  in 
small  wooden  tubes  for  different  machines  and  shuttles. 
The  Bryson  needle  cabinet  contains  needles  in  wooden 
tubes  or  in  papers  or  they  come  loose.  The  Singer 
needles  for  all  machines  are  generally  sold  in  larger 
cities  by  the  Singer  representative.  The  Boye,  Br#- 
son,.  and  Crowley^putfits  come  in  very  convenient  form 
for  use  in  a  Notion  Department. 

Sizes  of  Machine  Needles 

The  following  chart  shows  the  sizes  of  needles  and 
thread  which  should  be  used  in  a  few  of  the  better 
known  sewing-machines. 

f    150      90      70      50      30      20        8 

Size  of  Cotton  •<      to       to       to       to      to       to       to 

[    300     150      90      70      50      30      20 

Size  of  Silk          OOO    OO      O       A       B       C       D 


24  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

American 

Howe 

White  oo        o        i        2        3        4        5 

Wilson 


} 


:>       B       %        i        2        34 

Willcox  &  Gibbs      oo        o        i        2        3        4        5 
Domestic 


Eld  ridge 
Household 
Standard 
Wheeler  &  Wilson 


*  2        3        4        5        6        7        8 


There  is  greater  danger  in  using  a  needle  too  small 
than  one  too  large.  On  power  machines  a  special 
needle  larger  at  the  eye  than  in  the  blade  is  used  to 
overcome  friction.  The  manufacturers  are  also  able  to 
use  a  thread  that  has  fewer  strands  and  still  produces 
a  seam  as  strong  as  that  made  on  the  home  machine, 
for  with  a  larger  needle  there  is  less  wear  on  the  thread 
in  sewing.  For  each  stitch  completed  the  thread  has 
passed  backward  and  forward  through  the  eye  of  the 
needle  nine  times. 

Setting  a  Needle  in  the  Machine 

In  setting  a  needle  in  the  bar  of  the  machine,  great 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  is  pushed  up  to  the 
stopping  point  and  that  the  flat  part  of  the  needle 
shank  is  turned  toward  the  sewmg-ffiach1hrba?7~ 


NEEDLES  25 

(^Manufacture  of  Machine  Needles 

For  a  good  machine  needle  a  fine  grade  of  carbon 
steel  wire  is  necessary.  When  the  needles  are  made 
in  the  United  States  the  wire  is  imported  from  Eng- 
land, where  most  of  the  best  needles  are  manufactured. 
The  first  process  in  the  manufacture  is  cutting  off  the 
desired  length  of  wire  for  a  single  needle.  Then  the 
needle  wire  is  delivered  to  a  machine  that  automatically 
grasps  and  draws  out  the  wire  to  form  the  blade,  clips 
it  off  to  a  given  length,  lays  it  in  an  appointed  place 
where  the  groove  is  cut  in,  then  passes  it  to  another 
part  of  the  machine  where  the  eye  is  punched  in  and 
finally  runs  the  point  to-be  over  the  grindstone.  Fol- 
lowing this  comes  the  hardening  and  tempering.  The 
operations  of  finishing  the  needle  into  a  perfect  tool 
include  polishing  the  eye,  so  as  to  not  cut  the  thread; 
making  the  point  smooth  and  sharp;  and  grinding  a 
flattened  place  on  one  side  of  the  shank  so  that  the 
needle  will  fit  perfectly  into  the  machine  bar.  These 
processes  all  take  finely  specialized  machinery  and  a 
high  degree  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  workman. 

The  prices  of  sewing-machine  needles  vary  greatly. 

History  of  Needles 

Needles  are  not  a  modern  invention.  The  steps  in 
the  development  of  the  race  can  be  traced  from  primi- 
tive to  modern  times  by  the  form  and  the  materials  of 


26  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

needles.  Eyeless  needles  of  thorns,  ivory,  bones,  or 
fish-bones  were  used  by  all  early  peoples  who  wore 
skins  or  woven  materials  for  clothing.  With  the  dis- 
covery of  the  use  of  metals,  bronze  needles  gradually 
replaced  the  more  crude  ones.  The  first  metal  ones 
were  eyeless  and  it  is  supposed  that  the  Chinese  were 
the  inventors.  Bronze  needles  are  found  in  Egyptian 
tombs.  Some  silver  and  copper  ones  have  been  un- 
earthed in  ancient  Peruvian  graves.  Europeans 
learned  to  make  metal  needles  about  100  years  before 
the  discovery  of  America,  probably  through  the  Moors. 
Steel  needles  were  first  made  in  Nuremburg.  Later, 
Spain  became  almost  as  noted  for  her  fine  needles  as 
for  her  steel  blades.  Several  primitive  needles  are 
illustrated  in  Figure  7. 

For  the  past  two  centuries  England  has  produced 
the  best  steel  needles.  Needle  industries  are  found  in 
Redditch  and  several  of  the  other  towns  in  Worcester- 
shire. Although  the  colonies  made  their  own  needles 
for  a  short  time  during  the  Revolutionary  War,  today 
all  hand-sewing  needles  are  imported  by  the  United 
States.  In  New  Jersey  and  New  England  at  the 
present  time  the  manufacture  of  machine  needles  has 
developed  into  a  very  successful  industry.  English 
steel  wire  is  imported  for  all  first-grade  steel  needles. 
The  reason  that  it  is  practical  to  make  machine  needles 
in  the  United  States  and  not  hand-sewing  needles  is 


NEEDLES  27 

first,  because  it  does  not  require  quite  so  high  a  degree 
of  skill  to  produce  the  former  as  the  latter,  and  more 
automatic  machinery  can  be  used;  and  secondly,  ma- 
chine needles  retail  for  about  ten  times  the  price  of 
sewing  needles,  and  as  the  relative  cost  of  production 
is  not  proportionately  so  great,  this  leaves  the  margin 
of  profit  large  enough  to  enable  Americans  to  compete, 
even  with  their  higher  cost  of  labor. 


Chapter  IV 

COMMON  PINS 

Types 

The  service  that  a  pin  gives  is  largely  dependent 
upon  the  material  of  which  it  is  made. 

Pins  are  grouped  according  to  the  material  of  which 
they  are  made,  into  three  classes : 

Brass,  made  in  the  United  States  and  Europe. 
Steel,  made  in  England  and  Germany. 
Iron. or  adamantine,  made  in  the  United  States 
and  Europe. 

Materials 

Brass  pins  are  made  of  brass  wire  and  are  electro- 
plated with  tin.  For  the  highest  grade  of  brass  pins 
pure  block  tin,  which  is  99  per  cent  pure,  is  used. 
This  tin  will  not  turn  black  nor  discolor  light  fabrics. 

Steel  pins  are  made  of  a  carbon  steel  which  can  be 
hardened  and  given  a  fine  point.  They  are  plated  in 
the  same  way  as  brass. 

Iron  or  adamantine  pins  are  made  of  iron  bessemer 

28 


COMMON  PINS  29 

steel  wire,  and  are  coated  with  tin  or  zinc  or  whitened 
so  as  to  look  like  tin. 

Method  of  Manufacture 

The  general  method  of  manufacture  for  all  types 
of  pins  is  the  same.  Wire  of  the  desired  size  and 
quality  is  purchased  by  the  factory  in  large  coils.  A 
coil  is  put  on  the  pin-making  machine.  One  can  pic- 
ture the  wire  from  the  coil  passing  into  the  machine. 
A  small  hammer  automatically  presses  a  head  on  the 
end  of  the  wire  and  at  the  same  time  the  length  of  a 
pin  is  cut  off  the  coil.  This  pointless  pin  drops  into 
a  slit  in  an  inclined  bar.  The  width  of  the  slit  is  such 
that  the  body  of  the  pin  drops  through  and  the  head- 
remains  on  top.  Gravity  carries  it  down  the  incline, 
where  along  with  a  large  number  of  other  pins  it  is 
grasped  firmly  by  the  head  in  iron  fingers  which  twist 
the  ends  of  the  pins  back  and  forward  over  a  revolv- 
ing emery  wheel  that  points  them.  All  this  is  done  on 
one  small  machine  not  over  3  feet  square.  Usually  one 
man  operates  twelve  machines,  and  turns  out  on  the 
average  of  120,000  to  150,000  pins  per  day  on  each 
machine,  according  to  the  size  of  the  pin,  making  a 
total  output  per  man  of  about  1,500,000  pins.  Then 
the  pins  are  cleaned,  plated,  stuck  in  papers,  and  boxed. 

Finishing 

All  pins  are  cleaned  and  polished  by  tumbling  them 


30  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

in  a  revolving  barrel  filled  with  sawdust,  that  to  all 
outward  appearances  resembles  a  butter  churn.  If  the 
pins  are  brass  or  steel  they  are  plated  with  tin.  A 
very  small  percentage  of  brass  pins  are  japanned,  either 
in  the  dull  or  shiny  finish.  Iron  or  adamantine  ping 
are  either  plated  with  a  thinner  coating  of  tin  than 
the  better  varieties,  or  whitened  to  look  like  tin. 

Putting  into  Papers 

Pins  are  stuck  into  papers  entirely  by  machinery. 
They  are  placed  in  a  hopper,  from  which  they  fall 
upon  an  inclined  bar  which  has  a  slit  in  it  similar  to 
the  bar  on  the  pin-making  machine  that  carries  the 
pointless  pins  to  the  cutters.  Iron  fingers  grasp  a 
given  number  of  pins  by  the  heads.  Frorn  another 
part  of  the  machine  the  paper  is  brought  folded  ready 
for  one  row  of  pins.  The  iron  fingers  stick  the  pins 
through  the  folded  paper.  This  continues  auto- 
matically until  one  paper  is  filled,  whereupon  it  is  cut 
off  and  folded  up  —  a  finished  paper  of  pins. 

Cost  of  Production 

From  the  method  of  manufacture  it  is  very  evident 
that  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  the  different  types 
of  pins  is  due  to  the  material  used  rather  than  to  the 
variation  in  the  amount  of  labor  required  in  their 
manufacture  as  the  labor  is  practically  the  same  for 
all  kinds  of  common  pins. 


COMMON  PINS  31 

How  Sold 

The  standard  brass  pin  comes  in  papers  of  360. 

There  are  12  papers  in  a  package.  Brass  pins  are 


SIZES 


DC       MG       SC       F3*      BB        SW 

Figure  8.     Sizes  of  Common  Pins 

(Courtesy  of  American  Pin  Company) 

made  in  12  different  sizes,  the  most  common  being 
F  3%,  SC,  MC.  Brass  pins  of  a  cheaper  grade  come 
in  papers  that  contain  300  and  160  pins. 

Iron  or  adamantine  pins  when  plated  with  tin  are 
sold  in  papers  usually  without  any  printing,  containing 
200  to  280  pins.  Adamantine  pins  that  are  finished 
by  whitening  are  generally  packed  in  boxes  weighing 
a  pound  or  a  fraction  or  multiple  thereof.  A  pound 
contains  approximately  4,320  pins. 

Steel  pins  are  sold  in  boxes  of  a  pound,  a  fraction 
.or  multiple  thereof,  usually  in  one-fourth  or  one-half 
pound  boxes. 


32  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Suggestions  to  Purchaser  —  Use  of  Each  Type 

The  material  of  which  a  pin  is  made,  determines 
to  a  large  degree  its  use.  Brass  pins,  particularly 
those  plated  with  pure  block  tin,  are  by  far  the  best 
pin  for  general  use,  because  brass  does  not  rust. 

Steel  pins,  because  they  are  very  slender  and  made 
of  hardened  carbon  steel,  which  can  be  given  a  fine 
point,  are  especially  suited  for  dressmakers  who  work 
on  fine  qualities  of  textiles  and  for  all  uses  where 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  pin  holes. 

Iron  or  adamantine  are  not  desirable,  because  of 
their  poor  points  and  their  tendency  to  rust. 

Tests 

Although  the  pins  put  out  and  guaranteed  by  the 
best  manufacturers  are  marked  as  to  the  material  of 
which  they  are  made,  this  is  not  true  of  all  brands. 
Often  the  consumer  does  not  especially  desire  the 
guarantee  of  the  manufacturer  and  would  be  glad  to 
buy  a  cheaper  article  provided  that  it  would  meet  her 
needs.  The  following  are  simple  tests: 

1.  A  magnet  will  always  draw  iron  and  steel  but 

never  brass. 

2.  When    iron    and    steel    pins    are    exposed    to 

moisture  they  rust.     Brass  never  rusts. 

3.  When  the  plating  of  tin  is  scratched  off  the 


COMMON  PINS  33 

bright  gold-like  color  of  the  brass  can  easily 
be  recognized.     Iron  has  a  silvery  look. 

Tests  for  distinguishing  steel  from  iron  and  ada- 
mantine : 

1.  Steel  pins  are  slenderer,  stiff  er,  and  have  a 

better  finish  and  a  sharper  point  than  the 
iron. 

2.  Steel  pins  are  usually  so  marked,  are  imported, 

and  cost  from  3  to  5  times  as  much  as  iron 
pins. 

Qualities  of  a  Good  Brass  Pin 

A  good  brass  toilet  pin : 

1.  Is  made  of  stiff  spring  brass  wire. 

2.  Has  a  round  full  head  without  burrs  under- 

neath. 

3.  Has  a  point  with  a  long  smooth  taper  ending 

in  a  sharp  sticker,  thus  making  the  point 
strong,  obviating  the  possibility  of  its  bend- 
ing, and  enabling  the  point  to  be  easily  pushed 
through  the  material  without  pulling  the 
threads. 
History 

The  earliest  forms  of  pins  were  thorns,  fish-bones, 
pine  needles,  and  the  like.  Later  on,  women  changed 
these  natural  forms  into  more  effective  tools  by 
sharpening  the  points  and  smoothing  the  surface.  Still 


34  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

later,  metal  pins  were  fashioned.  Pins  of  bronze  and 
copper  have  been  found  in  ancient  Egyptian  tombs. 
Figure  7  shows  several  primitive  pins  and  needles. 

In  Europe,  metal  pins  were  first  made  in  the  fifteenth 
century.  They  were  very  expensive  as  they  were  made 
by  hand  and  of  precious  metals.  Common  pins  were 
made  in  two  pieces;  the  head,  a  spiral  coil  of  wire, 
soldered  to  a  metal  shank.  One  of  the  ladies  at  the 
court  of  Henry  the  Eighth  cut  herself  on  the  end  of 
a  spiral  coil,  whereupon  Henry  ordered  all  pins  to  be 
made  of  one  piece  of  wire  — "  solid  heads  and  needle 
points."  From  this  incident  dates  this  inscription 
which  is  now  found  on  most  papers  of  high-grade  pins. 
The  origin  of  "  pin  money  "  belongs  to  this  period, 
when  a  certain  amount  of  money  was  set  aside  by 
each  woman  at  the  first  of  the  year  for  her  supply  of 
pins. 

When  first  made  in  the  United  States  pins  sold  for 
$i  per  paper.  In  1824  Lemuel  Wright  secured  a 
patent  for  a  pin-making  machine  which  practically 
revolutionized  the  common  pin  industry. 


Chapter  V 

THREAD 

Cotton  Thread  —  Types 

The  principal  kinds  of  cotton  thread  used  in  the 
home  and  sold  in  the  Notion  Department  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

Sewing : 

(a)  Soft-finished  six-cord 

(b)  Glace,  three-cord 

(c)  Mercerized 

(d)  Waxed 
Basting 
Darning 
Millinery 

Raw  Material 

The  quality  of  cotton  thread  depends  upon  the  length 
\>f  the  cotton  fibers  used  in  making  it,  which  range 
from  the  short-fibered  Upland  cotton  to  the  beautiful 
long-fibered  Sea  Island  and  Egyptian  cottons.  Cotton 
is  raised  in  the  sunny  moist  climates,  like  our  great 
southland. 

35 


36  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

In  the  late  summer,  fall,  and  well  into  the  winter 
months  the  negroes  and  poorer  whites  gather  the  big 
snowy  boll.  The  cotton  is  taken  to  a  gin  where  the 
seeds  are  separated  from  the  fiber  and  the  cotton  is 
weighed  and  baled.  It  is  then  sent  by  boat  or  rail  to 
the  north  and  to  many  European  ports  to  be  made 
into  thread. 

Manufacture  of  Cotton  Thread 

After  the  cotton  arrives  at  the  thread  mill,  the  bales 
are  opened  and  the  cotton  is  mixed.  The  processes 
that  follow  mixing  all  help  to  clean  the  fiber,  make 
the  cotton  uniform  in  thickness  and  strength,  and 
prepare  it  for  carding.  A  sheet  of  fluffy  cotton  goes 
into  the  carding  engine  and  out  of  it  comes  a  big 
untwisted  rope  or  sliver.  For  the  better  grades  of 
yarn,  the  cotton  is  combed,  in  a  machine  which  sepa- 
rates the  long  fibers  from  the  short.  Figure  10  shows 
the  differences  between  combed  and  uncombed  cotton 
thread. 

The  long  fibers  are  again  formed  into  rope-like 
"  rovings,"  which  in  turn  go  to  a  group  of  drawing 
machines  that  pull  them  out,  double,  and  again  pull 
them  out ;  repeating  this  process  again  and  again  until 
a  very  fine  long  roving  of  uniform  thickness  is  formed. 
Then  the  roving  passes  to  the  spinning  machine,  where 
it  is  stretched  still  farther  by  being  spun.  Now  it 


THREAD  37 

is  called  yarn.  Still  more  must  be  done,  however, 
before  the  thread  is  made.  Figure  9  shows  a  primitive 
way  of  winding  cotton  thread. 

A  thread  is  composed  of  two  or  more  plys  or  cords 
twisted  together.  The  best  sewing  cotton  is  six-cord; 
that  is,  two  yarns  or  plys  are  twisted  together  and  then 
three  of  these  are  twisted  together  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection. By  this  means  a  proper  "  balance "  is  ob- 
tained. The  higher  grades  of  thread  are  a  combina- 
tion of  Sea  Island  and  Egyptian  cotton.  Basting 
threads  and  the  cheaper  grades  of  sewing  cotton  are 
generally  made  from  low-grade  Egyptian,  Gulf,  and 
Upland  cotton,  but  are  not  usually  combed,  because 
of  the  additional  cost. 

Sewing  Cotton  Standards 

Fortunately  for  the  average  salesperson  and  shop- 
per, the  problem  of  buying  thread  is  comparatively 
simple.  Certain  very  definite  standards  as  to  size  or 
number,  elasticity  and  strength  of  thread,  etc.,  have 
been  set  up  by  the  larger  manufacturers.  For  ex- 
ample, the  standard  brands  of  the  J.  P.  Coats  Co.  are 
J.  P.  Coats,  Clark's  O.  N.  T.,  Clark's  Mile-End,  and 
Brook's,  and  of  The  American  Thread  Co.,  the  Willi- 
mantic  and  Merrick  six-cord,  and  the  Alex  King,  Red 
Cross  and  Dragon  three-cord.  The  best  sewing  cot- 
ton is  a  six-cord  soft-finished  thread.  The  slight 


38  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

variation  in  the  shape  of  spools  makes  a  notable  dif- 
ference between  the  various  brands  of  standard  six- 
cord  of  a  given  size.  Each  heretofore  contained  a 
full  200  yards,  but  at  present,  owing  to  the  higher  cost 
of  cotton,  labor,  etc.,  the  spools  in  some  sizes  contain 
less. 

Sizes 

Standard  brands  of  spool  cotton  for  family  use  are 
put  up  in  21  sizes,  from  Nos.  8  to  200  in  black  and 
white.  Nos.  8  to  100  inclusive  are  six-cord,  but  above 
100  the  thread  is  usually  three-cord,  since  to  spin  a 
yarn  fine  enough  to  produce  a  six-cord  thread  in  these 
very  fine  sizes  would  be  not  only  very  expensive,  but 
impractical.  Between  Nos.  100  and  200  there  are 
often  but  three  or  four  different  sizes,  although  there 
are  six  different  numbers.  So  if  you  have  not,  for 
example  No.  130,  but  have  No.  120,  the  chances  are 
that  the  size  of  the  threads  will  be  about  the  same; 
the  size  of  the  spools  may  vary  a  little.  The  differ- 
ences between  the  sizes  in  these  finer  grades  is  so 
minute  that  it  is  not  worth  while  to  adhere  too  closely 
to  them  either  from  the  standpoint  of  manufacturer 
or  customer.  Among  the  cheaper  brands  of  thread 
a  similar  condition  exists  among  the  coarser  numbers. 

Colored  threads  come  in  sizes  50  and  60. 


THREAD  39 

Suggestions  to  the  Purchaser  —  Manufacturers'  Tests 

Every  effort  is  made  by  the  manufacturers  of 
standard  brands  to  keep  the  quality  of  their  thread 
up  to  certain  requirements.  Carefully  adjusted  testing 
apparatus  is  kept  at  the  mills,  and  at  the  selling  agen- 
cies. Sewing  cotton  is  constantly  examined  as  to  its 
tensile  strength,  elasticity,  smoothness,  number  of 
twists  per  inch,  and  many  other  features  which  deter^ 
mine  its  quality.  Therefore,  any  dissatisfaction  on  the 
part  of  the  consumer  is  immediately  investigated  to 
determine  its  cause,  for  the  manufacturer  recognizes 
that  a  satisfied  customer  is  the  best  advertisement. 

Time  lost  in  using  rotten  or  inferior  thread,  through 
breaking  and  lack  of  wear  converts  a  small  saving  into 
an  expense. 

Soft  and  Glace  Finishes 

Most  spool  cotton  used  on  the  family  machine  or 
for  hand-sewing  is  now  the  soft-finished,  round,  six- 
cord  thread.  Glace  thread  is  to  some  extent  still  used 
on  single-thread  sewing  machines,  because  the  con- 
struction of  the  machine  requires  a  thread  whose 
surface  is  hard  rather  than  soft.  Brook's  is  the 
standard  spool  cotton  of  this  type.  It  is  a  three-cord 
thread  of  unusual  strength. 


40  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Mercerized  Thread 

There  are  some  mercerized  sewing  cottons  upon  the 
market  which  are  sold  as  a  substitute  for  silk.  It  is 
invariably  a  three-cord  thread  of  basting  quality;  it 
weakens  and  disintegrates  with  washing,  and  the  colors 
are  not  always  dependable.  It  also  lacks  elasticity, 
an  essential  characteristic  of  any  successful  thread. 
Silk  has  the  greatest  elasticity  cf  any  sewing  fiber,  and 
long-fibered  cotton  when  properly  spun  comes  next,  but 
mercerized  cotton  has  almost  none.  It  is  this  lack  of 
elasticity  which  makes  a  mercerized  thread  used  on  the 
seams  of  a  garment,  especially  silk  fabrics,  tear  and 
pull  the  cloth  where  the  strain  comes.  Mercerized 
thread  is  not  adapted  to  hand-sewing,  but  is  used  very 
effectively  in  embroidery. 

Waxed  Thread 

Waxed  threads  are  generally  six-cord.  Many 
women  prefer  them  because  they  kink  so  little  in  hand- 
sewing,  but  they  do  not  realize  that  when  the  finish  is 
once  washed  away  in  the  laundry,  the  thread  is  weaker 
than  the  regular  soft-finished  threads. 

History  of  Sewing  Cotton 

The  development  of  sewing  cotton,  as  we  know  it 
today,  has  paralleled  that  of  the  sewing-machine. 
The  problem  of  the  early  thread  manufacturers,  in  the 


THREAD  41 

United  States  especially,  was  to  produce  a  thread  that 
would  run  smoothly  and  not  break  or  kink  when  used 
on  a  sewing-machine.  The  problem  of  the  sewing- 
machine  manufacturers,  on  the  other  hand,  was  to 
perfect  a  machine  that  would  not  fray,  split,  or  break 
the  thread.  At  first,  glace  or  silk-finished  thread  was 
used  on  all  sewing-machines,  as  well  as  for  hand-sew- 
ing. Later,  soft-finished  thread  replaced  glace  on  all 
shuttle  or  double-thread  machines  and  now  soft-finished 
thread  can  be  used  on  single-thread  machines. 

These  changes  have  been  due  to  improvements  in 
both  the  thread  and  sewing-machines.  With  the  com- 
ing of  machines  operated  by  power,  putting  a  uniform 
strain  upon  the  thread,  manufacturers  have  produced 
threads  of  improved  qualities  for  every  requirement. 
For  instance  a  few  years  ago,  manufacturers  of  the 
best  grades  of  men's  shirts  used  six-cord  thread  almost 
exclusively.  Today  with  the  improvements  in  the 
power-propelled  machines,  where  the  wear  and  tear  on 
the  thread  is  far  less  than  with  the  older  machines, 
very  little  six-cord  is  used.  It  has  been  replaced 
largely  by  four-  and  three-cord  thread,  yet  the  seams 
are  just  as  strong  as  before.  It  is  not  so  much  a  ques- 
tion of  cord  as  a  question  of  correct  spinning  and 
twisting,  freedom  from  knots  and  slugs,  and  the  main- 
taining of  that  proper  "  balance  "  which  insures  against 
kinking.  The  wear  and  tear  on  thread  in  machine- 


42  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

sewing  is  far  greater  than  in  hand-sowing.  It  has 
been  ascertained  that  the  amount  of  thread  necessary 
to  make  a  stitch  on  the  sewing-machine  passes  through 
the  needle  backward  and  forward  nine  times  in  making 
&  stitch.  It  can  be  readily  seen  that  the  sewing-ma- 
chine has  had  an  important  part  in  the  development 
of  thread. 

Basting  Cotton 

Basting  cotton  is  not  so  carefully  standardized  as  the 
six-cord  spool  cotton.  It  may  be  a  two-  or  three-cord 
thread  made  from  any  of  the  lower  grade  cotton  yarns. 
For  the  cheapest  grades  of  basting  thread,  the  short 
staple  Upland  cotton,  a  plant  grown  far  back  either 
from  the  gulf  or  ocean,  is  invariably  used.  The  best 
basting  cotton  is  three-cord,  and  put  upon  large  and 
small  spools. 

It  is  wise  to  notice  the  number  of  yards  of  thread 
•on  the  spool  label  as  well  as  the  quality,  for  the  num- 
ber of  yards  in  some  makes  is  very  short,  although 
the  spool  is  from  outward  appearance  of  standard 
size. 

Darning  Cotton 

A  good  darning  cotton  is  fast  in  color  and  made  of  a 
fine  hosiery  yarn  which  insures  softness  after  launder- 
ing. It  is  eight-ply;  that  is,  made  of  four  strands  or 


THREAD  43 

ends,  each  of  which  consists  of  two  strands  or  plys. 
In  the  best  grades  these  four  strands  can  be  easily 
separated,  so  that  one  to  four  can  be  used.  It  is  made 
in  black,  white,  and  sixteen  staple  colors. 

Cheaper  darning  cottons,  two-  or  four-ply  with 
fewer  yards  on  a  card  or  spool  are  made  of  a  lower 
grade  hosiery  yarn  and  when  laundered,  are  apt  to 
fade  and  become  heavy  and  hard  from  the  shrinkage 
of  the  yarn,  making  the  place  darned  feel  uncomforta- 
ble. 

Mercerized  darning  cotton  is  used  with  good  results 
in  mending  silk  and  lisle  hosiery  and  underwear.  It 
is  a  very  fine  grade  of  eight-ply,  four-end,  lustrous- 
finished  darning  cotton.  It  makes  a  good  substitute 
for  silk,  because  of  its  softness  and  brilliancy.  The  in- 
elasticity is,  as  in  all  mercerized  thread,  objectionable, 
but  can  be  largely  overcome  by  leaving  a  small  loop  of 
I /i 6  of  an  inch  at  the  end  of  each  row  in  the  process 
of  darning.  It  usually  comes  40  yards  to  a  spool  or 
ball,  in  black,  white,  and  staple  colors. 

Millinery  Thread 

For  millinery  purposes,  particularly  for  sewing- 
straw  braids,  a  highly  glazed  cotton  thread  is  best,  as 
the  straw  does  not  cut  this  as  it  does  soft-finished 
threads.  It  is  a  three-cord  thread,  put  up  on  large 
spools,  in  black  and  in  white,  in  Nos.  15  to  70. 


44  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Silk  Thread  — Types 

The  types  of  silk  thread  sold  in  the  Notion  Depart- 
ment are : 

1.  Sewing-machine  silk 

2.  Hand-sewing  silk 

3.  Darning  silk 

4.  Buttonhole  twist 

The  Silk  Worm 

There  is  no  other  fiber  whose  history  is  so  full  of 
romance  and  color,  whose  culture  is  so  unique  and 
wonderful,  as  silk. 

Commercially  there  are  only  two  varieties  of  silk: 
(i)  the  cultivated,  produced  by  the  cultivated  silk 
worm;  and  (2)  the  wild  silk,  such  as  the  tussah,  pro- 
duced from  uncultivated  moths. 

The  silkworm  passes  through  four  stages  in  its  life: 
the  egg,  larva  or  worm,  chrysalis,  and  moth.  After 
mating,  the  female  lays  several  hundred  eggs;  when 
hatched  these  eggs  become  little  worms,  less  than  three- 
fourths  of  an  inch  long  and  no  thicker  than  a  hair. 
The  worms  grow  so  rapidly  they  really  outgrow  their 
skins,  which  becoming  too  small,  are  shed  four  times. 
The  best  food  for  the  silkworm  is  the  perfect  leaves 
of  the  white  mulberry.  The  two  essential  requisites 
of  high-grade  silk,  as  far  as  the  culture  is  concerned, 
are  perfect  eggs  and  good  food.  Within  a  few  weeks 


THREAD  45 

the  worm  is  full  grown,  about  3  inches  long,  with  fully 
developed  spinning  glands.  Now  the  worm  loses  its 
appetite  and  grows  restless,  seeking  for  a  place  in 
which  to  spin  a  cocoon  about  itself. 

From  two  openings  on  each  side  of  the  head  are  ex- 
pelled two  delicate  threads  of  white  transparent  liquid. 
These  threads  upon  coming  together  form  a  single 
fiber  or  filament  and  soon  harden  upon  being  exposed 
to  the  air.  The  silkworm,  like  the  common  cater- 
pillar with  which  we  are  all  familiar,  first  throws  out 
threads  or  ropes  to  suspend  itself,  and  then  begins  to 
spin  the  cocoon  by  moving  'the  head  as  if  making  the 
figure  8.  The  threads  of  filaments  are  held  together 
by  a  gum.  In  one  cocoon  there  will  be  from  %  to  i 
mile  of  thread. 

The  silkworm  wastes  away  as  it  spins  its  cocoon  and 
becomes  a  chrysalis.  If  undisturbed,  the  chrysalis 
changes  in  about  15  days  into  a  moth  that  pierces  one 
end  of  the  cocoon  and  escapes.  But  if  the  silk  on  the 
cocoon  is  to  be  reeled  for  making  silk,  the  silkworm 
is  killed  by  heat.  The  cocoons  are  floated  in  a  basin 
of  boiling  water  preparatory  for  reeling. 

Reeling  Raw  Silk 

In  reeling,  filaments  from  5  to  7  cocoons  are  run 
off  together  and  form  one  strand  of  raw  silk.  In  this 
form  it  is  sent  to  the  mills  to  be  made  into  thread  or 


46      .  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

cloth.  When  one  cocoon  gives  out,  the  filament  from 
another  replaces  it,  thus  keeping  a  uniform  thickness 
and  strength. 

The  outside  and  the  extreme  inside  of  the  cocoon 
cannot  be  reeled.  This  with  other  waste  silk  is  used 
to  make  spun  silk,  the  manufacturing  processes  being 
practically  the  same  as  in  spinning  cotton  yarn. 

Silk  Importation 

The  reeling  of  silk  from  the  cocoons  is  seldom  done 
in  America.  Silk  comes  here  from  China  -and  Japan 
in  the  form  of  skeins  weighing  from  one  to  several 
ounces  and  packed  in  bundles  or  books  weighing  from 
4  to  8  pounds.  These,  in  turn,  are  packed  in  bales 
weighing  from  100  to  140  pounds.  When  these  bales 
of  reeled  silk  arrive  at  the  factory,  they  are  opened 
and  the  silk  is  sorted.  Then  it  is  soaked  over  night 
in  warm  water,  soap,  and  oil  to  soften  and  separate  the 
filaments.  It  is  next  wound  off  on  bobbins. 

Manufacture  of  Silk  Thread 

The  reeled  silk  is  very  fine,  having  from  5  to  7  silk 
filaments.  From  2  to  TOO  of  these  threads,  according 
to  the  thickness  of  silk  thread  desired,  are  wound  off 
together.  This  process  is  known  as  doubling.  Then 
the  silk  is  twisted.  It  is  not  even  now  a  thread.  Two 
or  3  of  these  strands  are  joined  together  and  twisted 


THREAD  47 

in  the  reverse  direction  from  that  by  which  the  twist 
was  put  into  the  strands.  If  the  thread  has  been 
tightly  twisted,  it  must  now  be  stretched. 

Among  the  American  manufacturers  of  silk  thread 
are:  M.  Heminway  &  Son  Silk  Co.,  Corticelli  Spool 
Co.,  Belding  Brothers,  Brainerd  and  Armstrong,  and 
the  Richardson  Silk  Co. 

Silk  Dyeing 

Next  the  dyeing  process  begins.  The  silk  is  first 
boiled  to  extract  the  gum.  The  gum  is  later  used  in 
the  water  with  the  dye  stuff  to  set  the  colors.  It  is  in 
the  dyeing  process  that  the  process  of  "  loading  "  the 
silk  takes  place.  If  more  metallic  salts  are  added 
than  are  necessary  they  are  precipitated  into  the  thread. 
Of  course,  with  the  addition  of  any  amount  of  dye,  the 
weight  cannot  but  be  somewhat  increased.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  if  no  more  weight  is  added  in  dyeing  than 
was  lost  in  boiling  off  the  gum,  the  silk  is  not  in- 
jured. High-grade  manufacturers  of  silk  thread  have 
accepted  on  the  basis  of  12  oz.  of  undyed  thread  13% 
oz.  of  dyed  thread  as  a  legitimate  weight  for  machine 
thread.  Up  to  16  oz.  the  strength  is  but  little  de- 
creased. Some  manufacturers  load  their  thread  up 
to  25  oz. 

Sewing-Machine  Silk 

Sewing-machine  thread  is  a  three-cord  silk  thread. 


48  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

It  is  sold  either  by  the  number  of  yards  to  a  spool  or 
by  the  weight  of  silk  on  the  spool.  The  coarser  sizes 
are  sold  by  weight  only.  The  following  table  shows 
the  sizes,  colors,  and  form  in  which  silk  machine  thread 
is  sold. 

Sizes                        Colors  How  Sold 

OOO  Black,  white  50  &  100  yd.  spools 

OO  Black,  white  50  &  100  yd.  spools 

O  Black,  white  50  &  100  yd.  spools 

A  Black,  white,  colors  50  &  100  yd.  spools 

F'  FFEFFF   }Black»  white  1/8  oz-  sP°ols 


Colored  machine  silk  thread  comes  in  but  one  size, 
A,  but  in  many  colors  and  shades.  The  color  number 
is  found  on  the  end  of  the  spool  opposite  the  end  bear- 
ing the  size  letter. 

Hand-Sewing  Silk 

Machine-sewing  silk  thread  kinks  and  knots  some- 
what when  used  for  hand-sewing.  Therefore,  for  this 
use  a  special  thread  is  made  which  comes  only  in  black 
and  white.  It  is  a  two-cord  thread  with  a  reverse 
twist.  It  is  put  up  on  long  slender  spools,  50  yds.  to 
a  spool,  in  sizes  A,  B,  and  C.  It  is  also  sold  in  %  oz. 
flat  spools  in  black  and  white. 

Darning  Silk 

Darning  silk  is  composed  of  several  strands  of  soft- 


THREAD  49 

twist,  spun  silk  stock.  It  is  put  up  on  small  spools, 
%  oz.  balls  in  individual  boxes,  and  %  oz.  balls  in  in- 
dividual boxes. 

Buttonhole  Twist 

Buttonhole  twist  is  a  tightly  twisted  three-cord  silk 
thread.  In  black  it  comes  in  sizes  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  EE, 
and  F,  in  10  and  20  yd.  spools.  In  colors  and  white, 
there  is  but  one  size,  D. 

Linen  Thread 

Linen  thread  is  made  from  the  flax  plant.  The 
plant,  its  cultivation,  and  the  manufacture  of  linen  is 
described  in  the  manual  for  the  "  Cotton  and  Linen 
Departments,"  which  see. 

The  long  fibers  of  flax,  called  the  "  line  "  are  used 
for  strong  fine  thread.  The  line  is  cut  into  three  parts. 
The  middle  portion,  the  strongest  and  most  uniform, 
is  used  for  the  best  thread.  As  in  cotton  the  fibers 
are  formed  into  a  sliver,  which  is  drawn  out  and 
doubled  many  hundreds  of  times  to  give  a  strong  rov- 
ing. Linen  is  always  spun  in  a  more  or  less  damp 
condition.  A  number  of  threads  or  plys  are  twisted 
together  in  the  opposite  direction  from  the  spinning  to 
form  the  thread. 

Thread  made  from  high-grade  linen  is  stronger  and 
less  elastic  than  cotton  thread.  Cheap  linen  thread, 


50  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

made  of  a  poorer  quality  of  linen  fiber  or  of  tow  lacks 
these  qualities. 

In  the  Notion  Department,  linen  thread  is  sold  gen- 
erally in  the  form  of  carpet  thread,  put  up  in  small 
skeins,  or  on  spools.  The  latter  is  the  usual  thread  for 
domestic  use.  It  is  three-cord,  comes  200  yards  to  the 
spool,  in  sizes  25  to  100,  in  black,  white,  and  natural 
linen  color. 

Worsted  and  Woolen  Darning  Yarn 

Worsted  yarn  is  a  tightly-twisted  yarn  made  of  long, 
straight,  lustrous  wool  fibers  with  little  felting  or  mat- 
ting qualities,  while  woolen  yarn,  which  is  a  loosely 
twisted  yarn,  is  made  of  the  soft,  short,  staple,  curly 
wool  fibers  having  saw-like  edges.  It  shrinks  little  in 
laundering. 

Wool —  Raw  Material 

Wool  is  sheared  from  the  sheep  on  the  ranches  or 
farms,  packed  into  bags,  and  sent  to  the  mills.  After 
the  fleeces  arrive,  they  are  sorted,  that  is,  certain 
qualities  and  lengths  of  wool  are  put  together.  Then 
the  wool  is  cleaned,  scoured  or  washed,  and  dried.  In 
the  cleaning  processes  the  fleeces  lose  about  two- 
thirds  of  their  original  weight.  If  there  are  burrs  or 
other  foreign  matter  on  the  fleeces,  they  are  removed 
by  machinery  or  by  carbonizing,  which  is  a  burning 


THREAD  51 

process.     The  wool  is  now  so  fluffy  that  it  must  be 
oiled  for  further  manipulations. 

Manufacture  of  Worsted  and  Woolen  Yarn 

Up  to  this  point,  the  treatment  of  worsted  and 
woolen  yarn  are  practically  alike.  For  the  worsted 
the  processes  of  carding,  gilling,  and  combing  all  tend 
to  lay  the  fibers  parallel.  Combing  separates  the  short 
fibers,  or  noils,  from  the  long  fibers,  or  tops.  These 
tops  pass  through  machines  that  form  the  wool  into 
slivers,  or  untwisted  ropes;  these  are  doubled  and 
drawn  out  many  times  until  they  are  uniform  in  thick- 
ness and  very  thin.  The  twist  is  then  put  in  by  spin- 
ning and  we  have  a  yarn.  A  number  of  yarns  or 
plys  are  twisted  together  loosely  to  form  darning 
thread. 

Darning  worsted  comes  on  cards  in  20  and  25  yd. 
lengths.  It  is  dyed  in  colors  to  match  all  kinds  of 
hosiery:  black,  white,  brown,  tan,  gray,  and  blue. 


Chapter  VI 

THIMBLES 

Materials 

Thimbles  vary  little  in  shape  and  are  classified  ac- 
cording to  the  materials  of  which  they  are  made. 
These  are: 

Celluloid 

Steel 

Aluminum 

Brass,  plated  with  nickel,  German  silver,  sterling 

silver,  and  silvered. 
Gold 
Silver 

Methods  of  Manufacture  of  Metal  Thimbles 

The  method  of  manufacture  of  all  metal  thimbles 
is  practically  the  same.  Brass  plated  with  nickel  is  a 
typical  process.  Round  flat  blanks  are  cut  from  sheet 
brass.  They  are  drawn  up  over  molds,  forming  the 
crude  foundations  of  the  thimbles.  The  tops  are 
trimmed  off  to  a  given  height;  and  the  edge  is  curled 
over  by  the  pressure  of  a  die.  The  indentations  for 

52 


THIMBLES  53 

the  head  of  the  needle  and  any  ornamentations  are 
stamped  or  knurled  upon  the  surface  of  the  thimble. 
Next,  preparatory  to  plating,  all  dirt  is  removed  by 
cleaning  and  burnishing.  The  Frontispiece  shows  the 
steps  in  making  a  thimble. 

Plating 

Plating  may  be  done  with  nickel  or  some  silver 
preparation.  There  are  three  kinds  of  silver  prepara- 
tion: German  silver,  in  which  8/1000  of  the  plating 
preparation  is  silver ;  sterling,  where  the  silver  approxi- 
mates 90+%;  silvering,  where  proportions  of  silver 
vary  from  German  silver  to  sterling.  Electroplating 
is  the  method  used  and  is  the  same  for  all  types.  All 
thimbles  are  polished  after  plating. 

Aluminum  Thimbles 

Aluminum  thimbles  are  made  in  much  the  same 
way  as  brass,  except  that  they  are  not  plated. 

Steel  Thimbles 

Steel  thimbles  are  manufactured  in  practically  the 
same  way  as  brass  but  are  seldom  plated.  When  they 
are  plated  it  is  only  on  the  inside,  and  then  the  inside 
is  covered  with  brass  to  prevent  rusting. 

Solid  Gold  and  Silver  Thimbles 

Solid  gold  and  silver  thimbles  are  not  usually  sold 
in  the  Notion  Department. 


54  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Celluloid 

The  celluloid  for  thimbles  comes  in  the  form  of 
tubing.1  A  piece  sufficient  for  a  single  thimble  is  cut 
off  and  put  into  a  heated  press,  the  core  of  which 
molds  the  inside  of  the  thimble.  The  mold  for  the 
outside  of  the  thimble  is  in  two  parts.  Under  hydrau- 
lic pressure  and  heat,  the  thimble  is  molded  completely 
into  shape  with  indentations  for  the  needle  and  the  roll 
at  the  edge.  If  there  is  any  surplus  celluloid  at  the 
points  of  joining  of  the  molds,  this  must  be  buffed 
off.  Polishing  finishes  the  article.  The  celluloid 
used  in  all  thimbles  is  practically  of  the  same  quality, 
except  when  colored  where  there  may  be  more  pig- 
ment used  and  less  celluloid. 

Suggestions  to  Purchaser 

Steel  and  aluminum  are  the  lowest-priced  thimbles. 
Steel  should  be  sold  where  a  strong,  heavy  thimble  is 
desired.  Aluminum,  being  very  light  in  weight,  is 
especially  good  for  children.  Celluloid,  nickel-plated, 
silvered,  and  German  silver  thimbles  usually  sell  for 
about  the  same  price.  Celluloid  fits  nicely  on  the 
finger,  but  some  people  find  it  clumsy  to  handle.  The 
silvered  thimbles  are  very  apt  to  tarnish.  Nickel- 
plated  thimbles  and  those  of  German  silver  give  very 
good  service.  Sterling  silver  thimbles  are  satisfac- 
tory, but  sell  at  a  higher  price. 

i  For  manufacture  of  celluloid  see  Chapter  XVII. 


THIMBLES  55 

Sizes 

Thimbles  come  in  eleven  sizes,  Nos.  2  to  12.  They 
are  usually  put  up  for  children  in  sizes  2  to  5,  and  for 
adults,  7  to  ii. 

History 

Thimbles  were  first  used  in  Europe  during  the 
Middle  Ages  and  were  probably  introduced  by  the 
Moors  at  the  same  time  that  metal  needles  were  in- 
troduced. They  were  made  of  leather  and  worn  on 
the  thumb.  The  name  "thimble"  or  "  thymelle " 
comes  from  "  pinna,"  a  thumb,  and  "  el "  or  "  I/'  an 
instrument  for.  In  the  course  of  time,  the  thimble 
ceased  to  be  worn  on  the  thumb,  except  in  a  few  cases 
such  as  the  sailmaker's  thimble,  which  is  a  piece  of 
leather  holding  a  metal  form  used  to  push  heavy  sail 
needles  through  cloth.  The  metal  piece  is  fastened 
at  the  base  of  the  thumb.  The  Frontispiece  shows  the 
sailmaker's  thimble. 

Metal  thimbles  were  first  made  in  the  seventeenth 
century  in  Holland.  In  1695,  John  Loflington  went 
from  Holland  and  established  a  factory  in  England. 
At  that  time  all  thimbles  were  made  by  hand  and  many 
were  very  beautifully  wrought  out  of  fine  metals  and 
set  with  precious  stones. 

Modern  thimbles  are  all  made  by  machinery.  The 
engraving  and  decorating  of  the  more  expensive  ones 


56  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

may  be  done  by  hand,  but  in  this  industry  as  in  many 
others,  machinery  is  universally  used. 

Finger  Shields 

A  finger  shield  is  worn  on  the  first  finger  of  the  left 
hand  to  protect  it  from  the  pricking  of  the  needle  in 
sewing. 

Celluloid  finger  shields  are  cut  out  from  flat  sheet 
celluloid  and  shaped  to  fit  the  finger  over  heated  forms. 
They  are  made  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  adjustable  to 
any  size  of  finger.  They  are  manufactured  in  white, 
pink,  blue,  and  amber. 

Rubber  finger  shields  consist  of  a  cap  or  thimble  of 
rubber  to  be  worn  over  the  first  finger. 


Chapter  VII 

MISCELLANEOUS  SEWING  SUPPLIES 

Tape  Lines 

Service  in  tape  lines  demands  that  they  measure 
accurately  and  continue  to  do  so  indefinitely.  This 
should  always  be  kept  in  mind  in  considering  the  dif- 
ferent types  of  tape  lines  which  may  be  classified  as 
steel,  cloth,  oilcloth,  and  fancy. 

The  steel  lines  satisfy  this  most  important  requisite, 
but  with  the  exception  of  some  of  the  fancy  kinds, 
they  are  rather  unwieldy  for  home  use.  They  are 
used  extensively  by  tailors. 

Cloth  tape  lines  are  never  completely  satisfactory; 
even  the  best  will  shrink  and  stretch.  However,  the 
double  ones,  stitched  firmly  and  with  brass  tips  at  both 
ends  give  much  better  service  than  the  single  cloth 
tapes. 

Oilcloth  measures  of  the  best  grade  are  the  best  for 
general  use.  They  are  accurate  and  give  a  reasonable 
amount  of  wear.  Carelessness  or  long,  hard  use  will 
crack  them. 

57 


58  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

There  are  so  many  varieties  of  fancy  tape  lines  that 
a  discussion  of  them  cannot  be  considered  adequately 
here.  They  are  usually  made  of  a  light-weight  tape 
line  which  is  wound  up  in  some  fancy  cover.  Most 
of  them  have  little  real  service  value,  although  fancy 
steel  lines  are  compact,  neat,  and  accurate. 

In  selling  tape  lines,  remember  that  real  satisfaction 
is  enjoyed  by  the  purchaser  when  the  markings  are 
clear  and  plain,  when  the  numbering  begins  at  one  end 
on  one  side  and  at  the  other  end  on  the  opposite  side. 
Occasionally  a  dressmaker  may  desire  a  tape  marked 
in  the  metric  system,  but  usually  there  are  few  calls 
for  these. 

Bodkins 

Webster  defines  a  bodkin  as  "  an  instrument  of 
steel,  bone,  ivory,  or  the  like,  with  an  eye  for  drawing 
thread,  tape,  or  ribbon  through  a  loop  or  casing/' 

Bodkins  are  made  of  bone,  celluloid,  and  nickel- 
plated  steel.  Bodkins  of  bone  are  the  natural  color, 
but  those  of  celluloid  are  ivory  white,  blue,  pink,  and 
red. 

Thread  Winders 

Thread  winders  are  forms  of  celluloid,  mother-of- 
pearl,  cardboard,  etc.,  upon  which  to  wind  small  quan- 
tities of  thread. 


SEWING  SUPPLIES  59 

Tatting  Shuttles 

Tatting  shuttles  are  made  of  a  great  variety  of  ma- 
terials—  black  hard  rubber,  celluloid  in  white,  black, 
and  colors,  composition  material,  and  metals  —  rang- 
ing from  nickel-plating  and  silver-plating  to  solid  gold 
and  silver.  They  vary  in  length  from  2  to  3%  inches. 
A  few  of  the  larger  ones  have  a  detachable  bobbin  and 
a  hook  attachment  that  is  used  to  draw  the  thread 
through  the  loop. 

Darners 

There  are  two  types  of  darners :  stocking  and  glove. 
The  same  material  is  used  in  both.  Usually  they^are 
made  of  wood,  either  finished  in  the  natural  wood, 
or  enameled  in  black  or  white.  Some  are  made  of 
celluloid. 

Stocking  darners  are  generally  egg-shaped,  with  or 
without  a  handle.  Glove  darners  are  about  4  or  5 
inches  long  in  form  similar  to  a  peanut,  each  end  of 
a  size  to  fit  in  a  finger  of  a  glove. 

Stilettos 

A  stiletto  is  used  to  pierce  a  hole  for  an  eyelet  in 
embroidery  and  to  keep  the  eyelet  either  round  or  oval 
during  the  work. 

Stilettos  are  made  of  bone,  celluloid,  and  steel. 
Celluloid  stilettos  are  molded  under  hydraulic  pres- 


60  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

sure  out  of  celluloid  wire  or  turned  or  cut  out  on  a 
lathe  much  as  one  would  cut  wood.  They  are  made 
in  all  colors:  ivory  white,  blue,  pink,  and  red.  Bone 
stilettos  are  also  turned  on  a  lathe.  Steel  stilettos  are 
plated  with  nickel  and  have  a  handle  of  wood.  Some 
of  the  steel  ones  have  a  device  that  regulates  the  size 
of  the  hole  to  be  pierced.  Others  are  adjustable,  and 
the  metal  part  may  be  taken  out  and  replaced.  It  has 
a  round  point  at  one  end  and  an  oval  point  at  the 
opposite  end. 

The  first  stilettos  were  made  in  France  and  even 
now  the  most  beautiful  and  finely  finished  ones  come 
froro,  France. 

Hern  Gauges 

Hem  gauges  are  used  in  hanging  a  skirt  to  mark 
a  line  around  the  bottom  of  the  skirt  parallel  to  the 
floor  at  a  given  distance.  A  very  satisfactory  one  at 
a  reasonable  price  is  arranged  with  a  piece  of  tailor's 
chalk  which  marks  the  line. 

Tracing  Wheels 

Tracing  wheels  vary  little  in  general  construction, 
but  largely  in  the  quality  of  material.  The  cheaper 
ones  are  made  of  a  poor  quality  of  steel  so  that  the  cut- 
ting points  on  the  wheel  soon  lose  their  sharpness. 
The  best  wheels  are  made  of  a  high  grade  of  carbon 


SEWING  SUPPLIES  6l 

steel  which  is  hard  and  takes  a  fine  temper.     The 
points  remain  sharp  and  do  not  break  easily. 

Emeries 

"  The  emery,"  as  known  to  sewers,  is  a  little  bag, 
usually  in  the  form  of  a  strawberry,  filled  with  emery 
dust.  Emery,  proper,  is  an  abrasive  material ;  that  is, 
when  it  is  rubbed  on  steel,  it  cleans  and  polishes,  and 
for  this  reason  it  is  used  to  keep  needles  bright  and 
free  from  rust.  Emery  is  a  variety  of  corundum,  one 
of  the  hardest  of  substances.  The  sapphire  and  ruby 
are  also  forms  of  corundum,  but  of  a  clear,  transpar- 
ent nature. 

Emery  derives  its  name  from  Cape  Emeri  on  the 
island  of  Naxos  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  where  the  best 
emery  of  the  world  is  mined.  It  is  also  found  in 
Chester,  Mass.,  Peekskill,  N.  Y.,  and  in  Sweden,  Spain, 
and  Greenland.  In  color,  emery  ranges  from  bluish 
gray  to  brown.  Much  of  the  emery  of  commerce  has 
been  colored  to  a  rich,  reddish  brown. 

After  being  quarried,  emery  rock,  with.more  or  less 
impurities,  is  crushed  first  in  great  stone  breakers  and 
then  in  smaller  ones.  The  resulting  dust  and  fine 
stone  is  separated  into  different  grades,  a  very  fine 
grade  being  used  for  emery  bags. 

The  variation  in  the  price  of  different  bags  is  due 
to  the  covering,  even  more  than  to  the  emery  used. 


62  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

A  covering  of  closely  woven,  firm  cotton  or  silk  keeps 
the  emery  in.  An  emery  should  never  be  used  as  a 
cushion  to  hold  needles,  for  the  needles  will  make  a 
hole  and  the  emery  will  leak  out.  Imported  emery  is 
used  for  the  best  grades. 

Wax 

The  wax  used  by  the  seamstress  to  bring  the  cords 
of  the  thread  together  and  to  make  the  fuzz  adhere 
closely  to  the  thread  is  pure  beeswax. 

Sewing-Machine  Belts 

The  quality  of  leather  contained  in  a  sewing-ma- 
chine belt  determines  the  wear.  A  good  quality  will 
give  a  reasonable  amount  of  service  without  unnatural 
shrinkage  and  stfetching.  As  a  rule,  a  poor  belt  may 
be  detected  as  the  leather  is  very  soft  and  spongy,  and 
lacks  the  smooth  appearance  of  the  better  quality. 

Belts  are  made  in  the  lengths  required  by  the  dif- 
ferent makes  of  machines.  Box  top  machines  take 
belts  varying  from  38  to  68  inches,  drop  head  from 
60  to  72  inches.  If  there  is  any  question  in  regard 
to  the  length  desired,  it  is  wiser  to  sell  a  72-inch  belt, 
for  it  can  easily  be  cut  to  the  right  length. 

Machine  Oil 

The  best  machine  oil  is  refined  sperm  oil,  which  is 
obtained  from  the  enormous  cavity  in  the  head  of  the 


SEWING  SUPPLIES  63 

sperm  whale  and  from  other  smaller  receptacles 
throughout  the  body  of  the  animal.  During  the  life 
of  the  whale  the  oil  is  in  a  liquid  state,  but  as  soon 
as  the  head  matter  is  removed,  a  solid,  waxy  sperm- 
aceti or  tallow  is  formed  which  may  be  taken  out,  leav- 
ing clear  yellow  fluid  oil.  This  oil  is  purified  by  treat- 
ment with  a  solution  of  potash  which  precipitates  all 
impurities.  Refined  sperm  oil  is  a  most  valuable  lubri- 
cant for  all  small  and  delicate  pieces  of  machinery. 
It  never  gums  or  becomes  sticky. 

Cheaper  oils  are  made  with  adulterants,  but  after 
the  lubricating  properties  have  evaporated,  these  leave 
the  sewing-machine  sticky  and  hard  to  run,  and  some- 
times bind  it  so  that  the  machine  cannot  be  operated. 
In  this  case,  it  is  valuable  to  know  that  a  bath  of 
kerosene  will  cut  the  gum  and  grease.  Then  re-oil 
with  a  high-grade  machine  oil. 

There  is  on  the  market  a  certain  oil  called  "  stain- 
less." It  will  not  leave  a  yellow  stain  as  ordinary  oil 
does,  but  it  will  leave  an  oily  or  greasy  mark  which 
is  practically  as  bad.  It  is  sperm  oil  bleached  by  chem- 
ical treatment  and  there  is  some  question  as  to  whether 
this  treatment  does  not  impair  its  lubricating  qualities. 


Part  II — Dress  Accessories  and  Findings 


INTRODUCTORY  TO  PART  II 

The  division  of  dress  accessories  and  findings  is 
composed  of  a  variety  of  articles  which  vary  accord- 
ing to  changes  in  fashion  and  differences  in  taste. 

Some  people  wish  to  use  articles  to  Which  they  are 
accustomed;  others  want  to  try  the  newest  thing. 
The  saleswoman's  knowledge  of  the  most  suitable  ma- 
terial for  special  uses  and  of  the  type  of  finish  or  fas- 
tening which  will  best  answer  the  customer's  purpose 
makes  suggestive  selling  simple  for  her  and  welcome  to 
the  purchaser. 

Although  the  average  saleswoman  in  the  Notion 
Department  knows  all  the  different  kinds  of  braids 
or  tapes  sold  by  the  store,  she  does  not  keep  their  uses 
clearly  in  mind  and,  knowing  nothing  of  their  manu- 
facture, she  cannot  tell  why  an  artificial  silk  lace  may 
be  good  for  a  middy  blouse  but  bad  for  a  shoe,  or  why 
woven  elastics  are  stronger  than  braided  ones,  yet 
these  points  well  stated  will  make  her  judgment  re- 
spected and  sought  by  her  customers. 

The  many  details  of  this  department  tend  to  make 
selling  automatic,  but  here,  too,  there  is  really  an  op- 
portunity for  exceptional  service. 

64 


Chapter  VIII 

TAPES 

Types 

Tapes  are  made  of  every  textile  fiber,  in  designs 
without  number,  and  for  purposes  innumerable.  In 
spite  of  the  many  varieties  they  may  be  grouped  as : 

Binding  and  finishing  tapes 

Ornamental  tapes  and  edgings 

Bobbin  tapes  or  drawing  strings 

Foundation  tapes  for  hooks,  eyelets,  etc. 

Manufacture 

All  tapes  are  made  on  the  narrow  fabric  looms. 
These  resemble  the  regular  looms  in  that  the  warp 
threads  come  from  the  warp  beam  to  the  cloth  beam 
horizontally  and  the  warp  threads  are  raised  and  low- 
ered in  much  the  same  way.  They  differ  in  that  the 
warp  threads  are  arranged  in  small  groups,  with 
spaces  between  them,  instead  of  being  a  continuous 
series  across  the  loom,  and  also  in  that  each  of  these 
groups  of  warp  threads  has  an  individual  shuttle 
which  weaves  the  bobbin  thread  or  filling  back  and 
forward  and  makes  a  selvage  on  each  side  of  the  tape. 
There  are  as  many  shuttles  on  the  loom  as  tapes  to  be 
woven.  Figure  12  shows  the  narrow  webs  and  long 
rows  of  bobbins,  one  for  each  web. 

65 


66  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Key  to  Figure  n 

In  Figure  n  the  common  varieties  of  tapes  are  pic- 
tured, and  the  following  key  explains  the  methods  by 
which  each  is  woven : 

A.  Feather-stitch  braid  (In  construction  a  tape) 

1.  Design  made  with  extra  warp  threads  in  the  mock 

leno  weave. 

2.  Design  made  with  warp  threads  on  a  Jacquard  or 

dobby  head  motion  loom. 

3.  Wrong  side  of  "  2,"  showing  the  direction  of  the 

threads  that  make  the  design  lengthwise  of  tape. 

4.  Design  made  by  Jacquard  or  dobby  head,  in  artificial 

or  real  silk. 

5.  Feather-stitch  design  made  with  extra  weft  threads, 

that  is,  two  shuttles  used  in  making  the  design. 

6.  Wrong  side  of  "  5,"   showing  the  thread   used  in 

making  the  design  running  crosswise  of  the  tape. 

B.  Beading,  made  with  two  shuttles  for  the  ground,  one  on 

each  side  of  the  open  work  and  a  third  for  the  thread 
joining  the  two  sides. 

C.  Bobbin  tape 

1.  Linen  made  with  plain  weave. 

2.  Cotton  made  with  twilled  weave. 

D.  Cotton  tapes. 

1.  Stay  tape,  made  with  twilled  weave  of  carded  yarn 

that  has  been  gassed,  a  cheaper  grade. 

2.  Fine  grade  of  mercerized  or  English  twilled  tape. 

E.  Stickerei  tape 

1.  Web  made  with  one  shuttle,  edging  with  second  shut- 

tle, making  two  weft  threads.     (Foreign  make.) 

2.  Edging  made  same  as  "  i,"  but  coarser. 

3.  Edging  made  same  as  "  i,"  but  coarser.     Dots  made 

by  warp  threads. 

4.  Imitation  stickerei,  with  edge  made  by  heavy  warp 

thread  caught  in  at  intervals,  the  mock  leno  weave. 

5.  Flute  edging,  made  with  either  dobby  head  or  Jac- 

quard. 


Figure    n.     Common   Varieties   of   Tapes 


TAPES  67 

F.  Cotton  seam  binding,  made  of  bias  strips  of  batiste  or  lawn 

with  raw  edges  turned  in  and  the  two  folded  edges 
turned  so  that  they  come  together.  (Not  a  tape  in  the 
sense  of  woven  tape.) 

G.  Cotton  bias  folds,  made  of  bias  strips  of  batiste  or  lawn 

with  raw  edges  turned  in. 

H.     Taffeta  seam  binding,  silk  tape  made  with  the  plain  weave. 
I.     Corset  tape  made  to  decorate  tops  of  corsets. 

1.  Pearl  edge,  a  false  or  mock  leno  weave  made  by 

drawing  warp  thread  with  the  filling  thread. 

2.  True  leno  where  the  heavy  threads  are  crossed  or 

"  douped  "  over  the  finer  ones. 

3.  Artificial  silk  design  put  in  by  warp  threads. 
K.     Corset  tape 

1.  Same  as  "  I  "  under  "  I." 

2.  Real  mock  leno  weave  made  without  "  doup  "  or 

crossing  over. 

3.  Same  as  "  2  "  under  "  I." 

L.     Initial   tape,   design   or   initial   made   with   extra   weft 

thread. 
M.    Buttonhole  tape 

1.  Buttonhole  woven  into  the  tape  by  the  use  of  an  ex- 

tra shuttle. 

2.  Buttonhole  worked  by  sewing-machine  into  a  double 

piece  of  fabric. 
N.    Hook  and  eye  tape. 

Designs  Made  by  Warp 

The  designs  are  woven  in  one  of  two  ways:  by 
manipulation  of  warp  threads,  or  by  the  introduction 
of  extra  weft  or  filling  threads.  The  former  is  done 
in  the  same  way  as  any  figure-weaving  in  broad  goods. 
The  color  or  figure  warp  is  brought  to  the  surface  by 
the  raising  of  certain  warp  threads  and  the  lowering 


68  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

of  others.  When  the  color  is  not  desired  on  the  sur- 
face, these  figure  warps  are  carried  on  the  back  of  the 
fabric.  The  different  designs  are  produced  by  differ- 
ent methods  of  tying  up  the  harness  which  controls  the 
raising  or  lowering  of  warp  threads.  For  the  more 
complicated  designs  some  mechanical  device  like 
the  "  dobby  head  motion  "  and  the  "  Jacquard  "  are 
attached  to  the  loom.  By  these  devices  warp  threads 
can  be  raised  or  lowered  individually  as  the  design 
requires,  thus  increasing  the  possible  variety  of  de- 
signs. The  most  intricate  designs  are  made  on  the 
Jacquard  loom.  (See  "Cotton  and  Linen  Manual.") 

Leno  or  Cross  Weave 

Many  of  the  open-work,  lace-like  narrow  fabrics, 
such  as  the  finishing  laces  for  the  tops  of  the  cheaper 
grades  of  corsets,  are  made  with  what  is  known  as  the 
leno  or  cross  weave.  In  this  style  of  weaving  the 
adjacent  warp  threads  instead  of  being  straight  and 
parallel  twist  about  each  other  letting  the  filling  or 
weft  threads  pass  through  them,  making  an  open  mesh. 

False  or  Mock  Leno 

Then  there  is  the  mock  leno  weave  in  which  much 
the  same  effect  is  obtained  without  twisting  the  warp 
threads.  It  is  not  so  strong  and  firm.  The  mock 
leno  is  made  by  using  a  weave  that  will  allow  warp 


TAPES  69 

threads  and  also  filling  threads  to  lie  in  groups  of 
three  or  more,  leaving  open  spaces  between.  Glazed 
yarn,  that  is  yarn  filled  with  a  size  of  starch  or  similar 
material  and  polished,  keeps  the  openings  distinct. 

There  is  a  third  kind  of  weave  that  is  sometimes 
called  mock  leno,  but  in  reality  is  an  adaptation  of  the 
pearl-edge  weave.  In  this  the  warp  threads,  gen- 
erally of  rather  large  size,  are  drawn  out  of  their 
natural  position  by  the  filling  threads.  This  is  com- 
monly found  in  the  cheaper  feather-stitch  braids  and 
stickerei  edgings. 

How  to  Distinguish  Warp  Designs 

A  tape  with  a  figure  introduced  by  the  warp  threads 
can  be  distinguished  by  looking  at  the  warp  threads 
of  the  figure.  Usually  they  may  be  more  clearly  seen 
on  the  wrong  side.  They  will  run  lengthwise  with 
the  tape.  The  larger  percentage  of  figure-weaving  is 
done  by  warp  threads,  especially  in  cheaper  fabrics. 

Designs  Made  by  Extra  Weft 

When  a  design  is  made  by  the  use  of  extra  weft 
or  filling  threads,  at  least  two  shuttles  are  used  for 
each  tape,  one  making  the  regular  foundation  weave 
and  the  other  making  the  design.  The  shuttle  that 
makes  the  design  is  adjusted  so  as  to  operate  only 
when  the  design  is  being  put  in.  This  method  of  in- 


70  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

troducing  a  design  is  used  where  the  yarn  for  the 
design  is  expensive,  the  work  very  fine  as  in  lettering, 
and  for  special  effects  such  as  the  edging  of  real 
stickerei. 

How  to  Distinguish  Weft  Designs 

Designs  made  by  an  extra  weft  thread  can  be  easily 
distinguished  from  the  designs  made  by  the  warp. 
On  both  the  right  and  wrong  side,  the  figure  weft  can 
be  seen  running  crosswise,  instead  of  lengthwise  as 
in  the  warp  figures. 

How  to  Determine  the  Quality  of  Tape 

1.  Unravel  and  note  quality  of  yarn  used. 

2.  Note  closeness  of  weave  in  both  warp  and  weft. 

Suggestion  of  Service  to  Customer 

All  tapes  containing  colored  threads  should  be 
washed  quickly  in  warm,  soapy  water,  always  using 
the  best  white  soap,  for  example,  Ivory.  Rinse  several 
times  in  clear  cold  water.  Dry.  Iron  with  a  moder- 
ately hot  iron. 

List  of  Tapes 

The  list  of  "  Common  Varieties  of  Tapes  "  shown  on 
the  following  pages  contains  tabulated  descriptions  of 
the  materials,  colors,  widths,  lengths,  and  uses  of  the 
tapes  sold  in  the  Notion  Department.  The  student 
will  be  repaid  by  making  a  careful  study  of  this  list. 


TAPES 


71 


<^      .M 

SB 

o 

CL) 

Q 


s  <•> 
S  2  t2 

73  ^5    G 


s  • 

«  g1 

>.S 


s1  rt< 

^>     r 

-i  ^"v 

CO 


P      S 
tJD      O 

^  ^ 

*  -p  ?^ 
en  »-  * — ! 
G 

o 


*     S 
•S    Q 


^- 

O  <u 
a  -O 


g  £ 


."o  ^  2  ^     ^ m 

^  _y  ^^ 

^         be    -13  ""^  ^ 

l|s||'Jl 


I 


|8"g 

~    G    > 
*~   S 


cT  w 

I  si 

o  &-0, 


CO  j3 

^    ^JQ,^  &0 

"P  c  .2  3 

^  *O   bjo  -c 

'S.S,C,  13 


C 


o 
U 


PQ 


CJ 


NOTION  DEPARTMENT 


Q 

"°.S  2.S 

1  "-3  or 


iS  OT 

-a 


«« 

£ 


<u 

> 

2  8 

§•§ 


•o  c 


*+ 


M-O      , 

i  s  Ni 

0  S  a> 


cn'So 


00 


WH*  T3 

<U  '"en         cu 

5  2^.2-^  £ 

S)  co'^  w  ^  -2 


§  j, 

* 


-8 


£  .2 


fl)    -M     4) 

•PI 


*••  u  c 

4->      J_      C 


c^S 


Jj    4>    O 


o    ^  v-  c.2 

0^0   O^i 


*-  c 

0   0 


cq- 

CO 

9 

PQ 

§cn 
•rt 


a 

n 

9 

CO 


w 


-a 


TAPES 


73 


I 


1 


Hfa 


(x,     i/ 

0  § 


<u.2xc£  £^> 

.acsvl^ll 


•-   rt   0 


w   55 

S  3 

>  ' o 

§1 

II 


JS  -a 


0     0 


1 1 

^H     *S 


<u  S        y 


^ 
o 

l-i 

•si 


to 

& 

*o 

g 


w 

8 

CO 


be  rt-a 

.s  e-S 


74 


NOTION  DEPARTMENT 


s 


C   rt 


I 


w    S 


"O    <U 

"o-S 
in 


H    .-S- 


8- 


*-5  c  <u 

OJ    > 


1 


<   >- 
>  •§ 


III 


—  " 
J3    o 


o 
O 


^2  C 
^ 


re 


Oi 

*C 
bi) 

3 


II 


Chapter  IX 

BRAIDS 

Types 

Braids  may  be  divided  into  several  groups  accord- 
ing to  their  uses.  For  bindings  which  show  on  the 
outside  of  a  garment,  braids  are  used  instead  of  tapes 
because,  owing  to  their  elasticity,  they  may  be  put  on 
more  neatly  and  give  a  better  finish.  For  lacings  they 
are  more  serviceable. 

The  types  of  braid  are : 
Bodkin  or  lingerie  braids 
Binding  braid 
Stiffening  braid 
Decorative  braid 
Lacers 

Origin 

The  art  of  braiding  antedates  historic  records. 
Primitive  women  intertwined  twigs  into  mats  and 
built  them  into  crude  houses.  Our  own  Indians  of 
the  Northwest  Coast  today  are  braiding  wonderful 
baskets  and  mats  of  cedar  bark.  In  the  Middle  Ages, 

75 


?6  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

the  maidens  of  Europe  welcomed  spring  by  dancing 
around  a  May-pole  with  vari-colored  ribbons  which 
were  attached  to  the  pole.  Half  of  the  girls  went  to 
the  right  and  half  to  the  left,  interweaving  the  ribbons 
in  a  tubular  braid  about  the  pole. 

Method  of  Manufacture 

The  general  principle  of  the  braiding  machine  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  May-pole.  The  machine  is 
circular  in  shape.  Spindles  with  yarn  wound  around 
them  take  the  place  of  the  maidens.  They  are  moved 
about  on  the  circular  framework  by  carriers  which 
interweave  the  yarn  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  the 
ribbons  were  intertwined  upon  the  May-pole.  The 
pole  of  the  braiding  machine  is  a  hollow  tube  through 
which  the  braided  fabric  is  drawn  off.  When  the 
carriers  make  a  continuous  circuit  of  the  braiding 
machine,  one  set  of  carriers  going  in  one  direction, 
the  other  set  in  the  opposite  direction,  the  braid  pro- 
duced is  tubular.  Where  the  carriers  do  not  make 
a  complete  circuit  but  reverse  at  a  given  point  and 
return  in  the  direction  from  which  they  came  until 
the  same  point  is  again  reached,  again  reversing  and 
returning  and  so  on,  the  braid  produced  is  flat. 

Braids  may  be  made  any  length  desired.  When 
the  yarn  upon  one  spindle  gives  out,  another  one  may 
be  substituted  and  the  yarns  joined.  For  all  tubular 


BRAIDS  77 

braids,  as  illustrated  by  some  corset  strings  and  shoe 
laces,  an  even  number  of  spindles  is  used.  For  flat 
braids,  an  uneven  number  are  required.  The  number 
of  lines  or  ridges  in  a  braid  multiplied  by  4,  plus  i, 
equals  the  total  number  of  bobbins  or  spindles  used. 
Thus  a  braid  having  22  lines  is  made  on  an  89  carrier 
machine.  22  multiplied  by  4  equals  88,  plus  one,  gives 
an  89  carrier. 

All  braiding  is  the  same  in  principle,  the  variations 
in  the  products  resulting  from  the  size  and  kind  of 
yarn  used,  the  number  of  spindles,  and  the  manner 
in  which  the  gears  are  set.  Upon  the  latter  depends 
the  firmness  or  looseness  of  the  fabric. 

Materials 

Practically  any  kind  of  yarn  can  be  braided  on  a 
braiding  machine :  cotton,  wool,  silk,  artificial  silk,  and 
pyroxylin.  Cheap  carded  cotton  yarn  from  which 
the  fuzz  has  been  removed  by  running  the  yarn  over 
lighted  gas  jets  (called  gassing)  is  made  into  the 
cheaper  grades  of  corset  laces,  shoe  laces,  and  rick- 
rack  braid.  Sometimes  the  yarn  is  starched  or  rilled 
with  clay  to  give  it  apparent  firmness,  strength,  and 
finish.  A  fine  carded  or  combed  mercerized  cotton 
yarn  is  used  in  lingerie  braids,  rickrack,  corset  laces, 
shoe  laces,  middy  laces,  and  skirt  braids.  In  the  finest 
qualities,  combed  Sea  Island  cotton  yarn  is  used  ex- 


78  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

tensively.  A  combed  yarn  has  longer  fibers  than  a 
carded  yarn  and  naturally  is  stronger  in  the  same 
weight.  Mercerization  of  cotton  yarn  gives  it  a  silky 
finish  and  usually  strengthens  the  fibers,  unless  the 
mercerization  has  been  carried  to  a  too  high  degree, 
in  which  case  the  excess  amount  of  caustic  soda  used 
weakens  the  yarn. 

Horsehair  braids  are  made  of  a  pyroxylin  fiber; 
that  is,  cotton  is  treated  with  an  acid  which  reduces 
it  to  a  semi-liquid.  This  is  forced  through  perfora- 
tions the  size  of  the  fiber  desired.  It  is  hardened  to 
a  stiff  fiber  resembling  horsehair.  It  is  naturally 
cream  colored,  but  can  be  dyed  any  color  desired. 
Because  of  its  stiffness  when  braided  it  is  used  for 
stiffening  dresses,  and  is  also  extensively  used  in 
making  women's  hats.  (See  "Millinery  Manual.") 

Uses  of  Different  Braids 

Silk  is  used  in  binding  and  trimming  braids  for 
dresses  and  also  for  middy,  shoe,  and  corset  laces. 

Artificial  silk  is  employed  to  a  very  large  extent 
in  middy  laces  and  binding  braids.  It  has  a  much 
higher  luster  than  real  silk.  It  can  be  easily  dif- 
ferentiated from  real  silk  because  if  a  piece  of  yarn 
is  raveled  out  and  dampened  it  breaks  readily.  An- 
other test  is  burning  the  yarn.  If  it  gives  off  an  odor 


BRAIDS  79 

Jike  burning  hair  it  is  real  silk,  but  if  it  burns  quickly 
with  but  little  odor,  it  is  artificial  silk. 

Artificial  silk  is  very  little  cheaper  than  real  silk. 
It  is  used  extensively  for  middy  laces  as  the  braid  is 
firmer  and  therefore  more  suitable,  and  because  it  has 
a  brilliant  luster.  Strength  is  not  required  of  a  middy 
lace  since  it  is  only  an  ornament,  and  the  firmness  of 
the  artificial  silk  causes  it  to  stand  out  nicely. 

List  of  Braids 

The  list  of  "  Common  Varieties  of  Braids  "  appear- 
ing on  the  following  page  gives  a  tabulated  description 
of  the  types,  materials,  colors,  widths,  lengths,  and 
vises  of  the  braids  sold  in  the  Notion  Department. 


80 


NOTION  DEPARTMENT 


« 

o  yd.  To  draw  up 

usual-  underwear 
cards 

e 

c 

i 

Q  * 
1 

S  'G 

fbo 
'I  S 

i  S  « 
i|g 

c 

u 
u 

T3    O 
rt   ** 
S    >, 

Its  Decorative 

>  yd.  Decorative 

lts  Decorative 

I 

il 

j 

in 
*.d 

w 

SI 

\o  cT  M 
to    ^  •* 

C 

.  »     M 

^ 

*"O 

"3  -0 

Q 

£ 

^o 

N 

.  r      T? 

1 

gl8 

21 

1     ^  o 

•d^5 

5  5 

•d 

* 

*4 

<«*-: 

0    § 

3 

•k  -' 

to  "* 

2 

in 

•* 

*» 

0 

i>  " 

#*? 

•a  xj 

.S 

1 

.s 

111 

» 

i       Ja 

BRAIDS 

escription 

"O 

I 

2^ 

n 
S-g 

SE 

0) 

? 

.s 

V 

r2 

c 

2 

•d  .2*3 

|*I 

CO            W    **  '^ 
w.g.       .&T3 

li    all 

_O    r>          OJ  _o  ill 

s  " 

* 

^ 

c^ 

^2 

if 

£ 

9 

jg  •       M 

i 

« 

i 

1 

"o, 
rt 
"to   co 

"o 

fe 

"rt  *o 

•~    D 

11 

«£ 
A 

X 

n 

>  4 

'.a  'E, 

-1 

03  J3 

o 

-1 

0> 

"H. 
5 

CO          ^ 

III 

II 

"II 

*.  *-• 

(U    0 

11 

^  c 

^ 

•< 

U 

< 

< 

W 

J> 

W 

^ 

0 

S 

0 

3  I 

1 
•i3 

o 

ts  jj 

If 

§J3 

£  a  f 
'$2  •*) 

-a«.S 

Ijl 

| 

i-  c" 

T3 
C   £                    -    <L> 

f  O             ON 

•a 

C 

Material 

'H  °~  u 

"    O  "O  T 

^ 

u 

•a  . 

J3  T3 

O      4> 
S 

.N    O 

artifici. 
Carded  c 
merceri 

II 

W    o 
U 

111 

E  °  g      U  'C 

111  111 

CJ 

cotton, 

5 

1 

> 

S 

- 

5 

t« 

rt 

*, 

13 

a. 

•M    O   ^ 

rt    •-.  ^ 

•* 

^ 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

E 

€ 

E 

E 

S 

| 

Lingerie 

Binding 

Horsehair 

t 
w 

Soutache 

Rickrack 

Stickerei 

|1 

S 
1 

J 
| 

Chapter  X 

BELTINGS 

Types 

Beltings  vary  with  the  styles  of  skirts  and  girdles 
worn.  Sometimes  when  they  are  only  needed  for  a 
finish  to  the  top  of  the  skirt,  they  may  be  soft  and 
light,  and  in  this  case  they  are  covered  with  an  outside 
girdle.  Again  they  are  the  foundation  to  which  the 
skirt  is  fitted  and  which  gives  it  its  shape. 

They  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 

Serge  belting,  straight  and  thin. 

Heavy  woven  beltings,  either  straight  or  curved, 

with  or  without  stays. 
Girdle  foundations,  made  of  light  material. 

1.  Narrow  belting,  i  to  4  inches  wide,  boned 

and  bound  on  edges. 

2.  Girdle    foundations  proper,   over  4   inches 

wide  and  boned. 

Serge  Belting 

Serge  belting  is  used  for  binding  the  tops  of  skirts 
when  a  separate  belt  or  girdle  is  to  be  worn.  It  is  a 

81 


82  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

webbing  i  to  i%  inches  wide,  made  with  a  heavy, 
tightly-twisted  cotton  warp  and  a  mercerized  cotton 
or  silk  rilling,  woven  in  the  herring-bone  twill  weave. 
It  is  a  very  fine  grade,  firm  piece  of  webbing,  es- 
pecially constructed  to  withstand  strain  and  wear.  It 
is  made  in  black,  gray,  and  white.  Some  of  the  serge 
beltings  are  folded  in  the  center  lengthwise,  pressed 
or  stitched  in  place. 

Heavy  Woven  Beltings 

Heavy  woven  beltings  or  bandings  are  used  as 
foundations  for  high  waist  line  skirts  and  as  inside 
belts  in  dresses.  Those  made  for  the  former  purpose 
are  stiff,  often  reen forced  with  stays  so  as  to  prevent 
wrinkling  at  the  waist,  while  those  used  for  inside  belt- 
ings in  dresses  are  generally  soft  bands.  The  quality 
of  a  belting  depends  upon  the  firmness  of  the  weave 
and  the  grade  of  yarn  used.  They  are  woven  either 
in  the  herring-bone  twill  or  in  the  plain  weave  with  r 
heavy  warp  which  gives  a  ribbed  effect. 

Curved  Beltings 

When  these  beltings  were  first  put  on  the  market, 
they  were  all  woven  as  a  straight  web  and  stiffened 
with  sizing  or  starch.  Now,  however,  the  demands  of 
style  have  brought  certain  variations  such  as  the 
curved  belt  with  one  edge  longer  than  the  other,  and 


BELTINGS  83 

the  double-curved  belt  with  the  two  edges  the  same 
length  but  with  the  center  of  the  band  shorter  and  re- 
inforced to  hold  it  in  place.  These,  as  a  rule,  have 
not  been  woven  with  a  curve,  but  are  woven  straight 
and  then  given  the  curve  after  weaving,  by  manipula- 
tions in  the  finishing  process.  The  first  of  these 
curved  beltings  has  the  curved  edge  arranged  so  that 
the  belt  fits  the  wearer  nicely  and  does  not  pucker. 
The  advantage  of  the  second  is  that  the  belting  is 
curved  so  as  to  fit  the  waist  line  and  the  belt  stays  in 
place.  Both  straight  and  curved  belts  are  now  rein- 
forced with  some  kind  of  stay  which  prevents  the 
wrinkling  of  the  skirt  at  the  waist  line. 

Widths 

Straight  beltings  come  in  black,  white,  gray,  and 
brown  in  widths  varying  from  i  to  6  inches.  These 
beltings  are  sold  to  the  notion  trade  ordinarily  in 
lengths  of  9,  10,  and  12  yards  and  in  rolls  of  36  or 
72  yards  each.  The  curved  belts  are  from  i%  to  2 
inches  wide  in  black,  white,  gray,  and  brown.  Curved 
belts  reinforced  with  stays  come  wider,  i%  to  3  inches 
in  black  and  white. 

Light  Beltings 

Beltings  are  also  made  of  light  material,  like  per- 
caline,  bound  on  the  edges  and  stiffened  with  bones. 
Featherbones  are  either  stitched  on  in  a  casing  or 


84  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

slipped  into  casings  that  form  sockets  on  each  side  of 
the  belting.  Celluloid  bones  are  also  put  into  the 
latter.  This  style  comes  in  widths  from  i%  to  4 
inches.  Real  girdle  foundations  are  wider,  unbound 
on  the  edges,  curved  to  fit  the  lines  of  the  figure  and 
stiffened  with  featherbone.  They  are  sold  either  by 
the  yard  or  are  made  up  into  finished  girdles  of  the 
various  waist  measures. 


Chapter  XI 

BONINGS  AND  STAYS 

Importance 

Among  the  most  important  requisites  for  comfort 
and  for  the  neatness  of  a  dress  are  the  bones  or  stays 
which  are  used  to  keep  it  smooth  and  in  shape.  For 
tight  fitting  dresses  they  are  especially  important. 
Boning  for  collars,  girdles,  and  primarily  for  corsets 
or  their  substitutes  is  equally  important  when  the  dress 
is  full  and  apparently  without  stiff  supports.  Judg- 
ment and  discrimination  are  needed  now  more  than 
in  the  past  because  of  the  great  differences  in  styles 
and  in  individual  taste. 

Types 

Bonings  of  four  different  materials  are  found  in 
the  Notion  Department: 

Whalebone,  sold  by  the  yard,  used   for  boning 

waists  and  girdles. 
Featherbone,  sold  by  the  yard,  used  for  boning 

waists,    girdles,    skirts,    and   tunics,    as   collar 

stays,  and  stiffening  for  beltings. 
85 


86  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Celluloid,  used  as  stays  in  beltings,  and  for  collar 

supports. 
Steel,  back,  side,  and  front  corset  steels. 

Whalebone  and  featherbone  constitute  the  main 
supply  of  bonings. 

Whalebone 

Whalebone,  because  of  its  natural  flexibility,  light- 
ness, and  toughness,  was  the  first  material  for  waist 
bonings.  But  its  use  is  being  reduced  to  the  minimum 
for  two  reasons:  first,  the  increasing  difficulty  of 
getting  whalebone  on  account  of  the  growing  scarcity 
of  whales;  second,  the  manufacture  of  an  excellent 
substitute  in  the  form  of  featherbone,  which  has  many 
of  the  same  qualities,  is  very  much  cheaper,  and  can 
be  sewed  into  the  garment  with  greater  ease  and 
better  results. 

Source  of  Whalebone 

The  name  "  whalebone  "  is  a  misnomer,  for  it  is 
not  a  bone  at  all.  It  is  a  horny  substance  formed  in 
the  palate  in  the  mouth  of  the  whale.  The  popular 
understanding  that  the  whale  is  a  fish  is  not  true.  It 
is  a  mammal,  very  well  adapted  to  its  environment. 
Whalebones  are  really  very  highly  developed  forms  of 
the  longitudinal  ridges  found  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth 
of  all  mammals.  In  the  whale  they  serve  as  strainers 


BONINGS  AND  STAYS  87 

that  separate  from  the  water  all  the  microscopic 
organisms  that  constitute  the  whale's  food.  The 
mouth  of  the  whale  is  larger  than  all  the  other  body 
cavities.  Some  whalebones  are  ten  and  twelve  feet  in 
length.  There  are  as  many  as  380,  sometimes  even 
more,  on  each  side  of  the  mouth.  (See  Figure  13.) 

While  the  animal  is  alive  these  whalebones  are  soft, 
but  after  it  is  dead  and  the  bones  are  removed,  they 
become  very  hard  and  must  be  softened  by  soaking  for 
10  or  12  hours,  before  they  can  be  cut  into  strips 
about  one-fourth  of  an  inch  wide  suitable  for  bonings, 
or  into  tiny  bristles  for  brushes.  Whalebone  in  the 
form  of  bonings  comes  into  the  retail  market  in  vary- 
ing lengths,  usually  about  one  yard  long.  In  the 
seventeenth  century,  whalebone  sold  for  $700  a  ton. 
Before  the  recent  war  in  Europe  it  was  selling  for 
about  $6,000  a  ton. 

Method  of  Sewing  Whalebone  into  a  Waist 

Before  a  whalebone  can  be  sewed  into  the  seam  of 
a  garment,  it  must  be  soaked  from  4  to  6  hours  to 
make  it  soft  enough  to  sew  through.  There  are  two 
common  methods  of  putting  whalebone  into  a  waist. 
The  simplest  method  is  to  make  a  flat  fell  seam  large 
enough  to  hold  the  bone.  Then  sew  through  the  bone 
and  the  lining  at  both  top  and  bottom  of  the  whale- 
bone. The  better  way  is  to  use  Prussian  binding. 


88  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

One  end  of  the  binding  is  folded  back  about  one  inch, 
making  a  pocket.  The  whalebone  is  put  in  so  that 
it  comes  to  within  one-half  inch  of  the  end  of  the 
pocket.  Whalebone  and  casing  are  then  laid  in  place 
on  the  open  seam  and  stitches  are  taken  through  the 
bone.  Then  Prussian  binding  is  held  loosely  over  the 
bone  and  sewed  to  the  flat  seam,  thus  making  a  casing, 
and  the  bone  is  sewed  in  place  at  the  lower  end  also. 

Featherbone 

Featherbone  is  a  monument  to  American  thrift  and 
ingenuity.  Some  years  ago  while  Mr.  E.  K.  Warren 
was  at  the  Chicago  stock  yards  he  observed  that  great 
quantities  of  turkey  feathers  were  discarded  as  useless 
and  valueless.  As  a  result  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
utilizing  them  in  making  bones  for  dresses.  Thus  out 
of  a  waste  product  has  grown  a  gigantic  industry. 

Method  of  Manufacture  of  Featherbone 

The  method  of  manufacturing  featherbone  is  very 
interesting.  The  long  pointer  quills  of  turkeys  are 
used  for  all  high-grade  featherbone.  The  plumage  is 
removed  from  both  sides  of  the  quill,  the  quill  is  split 
open  on  one  side  and  after  the  pith  is  removed  the 
quill  is  opened  out  flat.  Then  it  is  shredded  or  split 
into  long  slender  fibers  which  are  made  into  a  con- 
tinuous cord  by  lapping  them  and  wrapping  them  with 
thread.  The  bone  is  made  by  wrapping  a  number  of 


BONINGS  AND  STAYS  89 

cords  in  the  same  way  and  stitching  it  through  the 
center  to  hold  it  flat.  It  is  then  starched  and  calen- 
dered to  give  it  finish.  Some  of  the  special  bonings 
are  made  by  plaiting  or  braiding  thread  or  fiber 
around  the  cords.  Examples  of  this  type  are  found 
among  tunic  bones  and  skirt  bonings.  Figure  14 
shows  the  method  of  making  featherbone. 

Characteristics  of  Featherbone 

Although  featherbone  differs  greatly  in  form  from 
whalebone,  it  has  much  the  same  appearance  when  in 
use  and  few  people  are  able  to  tell  the  difference 
between  the  two  when  they  are  once  put  in  the  lining 
in  the  same  way.  Featherbone  is  replacing  whale- 
bone to  a  large  extent  because  it  is  much  cheaper,  and 
can  be  used  immediately  without  any  preliminary  treat- 
ment like  soaking.  As  it  is  sold  in  any  length  desired, 
there  need  be  no  waste  in  its  purchase.  Besides,  it 
has  better  wearing  qualities  and  makes  a  much  better 
fitting  garment  for  the  real  purpose  of  bones  in  a  dress 
is  not  to  furnish  a  support  for  the  body,  but  to  make 
the  garment  fit  smoothly.  This  can  be  done  better 
with  featherbone  than  whalebone,  for  the  featherbone 
can  be  stitched  directly  into  the  seam  of  the  lining,  and 
through  the  curve  of  the  waist  wrhere  wrinkles  are  not 
wanted,  the  cloth  may  be  held  taut.  At  the  bottom 
and  top  of  the  bones  the  goods  can  be  slightly  fulled. 


90  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Uncovered  Featherbone 

There  are  many  different  grades  of  featherbone,  but 
generally  speaking,  bones  used  for  waists  are  either 
covered  or  uncovered.  The  uncovered  bone  is  used 
practically  in  the  same  way  as  whalebone.  The 
standard  uncovered  bone,  one-fourth  inch  wide,  comes 
in  12-  and  36-yard  coils.  The  stiffest  featherbone 
made  is  the  uncovered  hook  and  eye  bone. 

Covered  Featherbone 

The  covered  waist  featherbones  come  in  a  number 
of  different  qualities  and  in  many  different  grades. 
Whether  the  covering  is  cotton  tape,  moire,  silk,  or 
nearsilk,  there  is  always  a  stitching  through  the  center 
to  serve  as  a  guide  in  sewing  the  bone  to  the  seam. 

Uses 

The  variety  of  uses  to  which  featherbone  is  applied 
is  almost  unlimited.  Each  season  brings  out  new 
variations.  With  the  advent  of  the  flaring  skirt,  tunic 
bones  of  varying  widths  and  kinds  of  covering  have 
come  and  also  skirt  bonings  made  of  cords  of  feather- 
bone  held  together  by  an  artificial  horsehair  (a 
pyroxylin  fiber).  Thus  the  changing  styles  call  on 
the  ingenuity  of  the  manufacturers. 

The  following  list  gives  a  tabulated  description  of 
and  suggestions  for  uses  of  featherbones : 


BONINGS  AND  STAYS 


& 

bo 

.s 

•a    o°-|l|       ^ 

8 

§ 

0         O^^o"^                    0 

IH 

0 

CQ 

CQ      CQ           Ct,                    Cti 

2 

o 

I 

"H   "2      "2           "H 

C3          C3                 C3                             CO 
>,        r>>              ^i                           >> 

i 

I 

O        4>              O                          «J 

<u 

ey 

3 

rg     -5        -5                5 

5 

•£ 

H; 

>,>>>.                >> 

J^ 

^ 

CQ      CQ          CQ                   CQ 

CQ 

CQ 

ts 

•6       T3            -0 

•0 

S 

>>         >^               >>                           ^OT 

1 

\0       \0            «5 

ro        to             <^                         o 

tr> 

1 

£> 

'g^s'^^s   ^^         -d 

"c-S 

-d 

'o 

rt'o  rt'S      «"o               ^ 

rt'3 

>> 

C/1 

3; 

° 

<S   "  P4   °        N  °                   ^ 

2  ° 

*Si 

W 

k-t                  M                            >-l 

ro 

fc 

EATHERBO 

$ 

3 

«M 

p 

jl 

sH 

i3 

1 

JH 

<«> 

Z'sl 

ill           ||1 

.R 

6     p 

^                                                   *S         4> 

& 

c                   '     "§ 

3 

Q      .5       0 

0 

2^1 

"o  "**• 

i-S.2.3)           gfas 

1 

( 

i 

O  •-  I*  W^O  O 

Si          IH5    £  " 
4?      -<S^'S  c42 

"83 
II 

1 
IU 
> 

! 

s 

Q 

4 
1? 

V 

"2   •«              1-0*2 

S  s    F-s1^ 

o     ^           S       w^  rt  o 

O        O              *>  N^  TO^M  *H  o 

a     o        0-^°  °-Q  c 

I*«J 

<n  t>  co        4J 

TScS'S^e 

8g8'*.§ 

0 
0 

I 

* 

D    ffi       U              D 

D 

^ 

| 

% 

.H 

s 

"^ 

rt 

§             13 

"o 

^ 

H              w 

0 

92  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Celluloid  Bones 

In  the  Notion  Department  celluloid  stays  are  an 
item  of  very  little  significance.  They  are  found  as 
collar  supports  (see  "Collar  Supports  and  Bones"  in 
this  chapter)  and  as  stays  in  a  certain  type  of  belting 
(see  Chapter  X,  "Beltings"). 

Corset  Steels  . 

There  are  two  very  important  facts  to  be  kept  in 
mind  in  selling  corset  steels:  (i)  the  quality  of  the 
steel  and  the  way  it  is  covered  for  protection  against 
rust;  (2)  the  kind,  size,  and  length  of  the  steel,  which 
are  determined  by  the  place  it  has  in  the  corset.  There 
are  four  kinds  of  steels :  side,  back,  front,  and  boning 
wires. 

Side  and  back  steels  in  the  cheaper  grades  are  paper- 
covered  with  metal  tips.  In  a  little  better  quality, 
the  tips  are  dipped  in  celluloid  to  insure  them  against 
rust.  Cloth  covered  steels  with  tips  dipped  in  celluloid 
are  still  better.  The  best  steels  are  now  covered  with 
a  hard  rubber  composition  that  looks  somewhat  like 
whalebone.  Until  a  few  years  ago  whalebone  was 
used  in  all  high-grade  corsets.  The  first  steels  covered 
with  this  rubber  composition  were  copyrighted 
"  walohn."  At  present  whalebone  has  been  completely 
replaced  by  steel,  partly  because  of  the  prohibitory 
cost  of  whalebone  and  because  steel  is  satisfactory. 


BONINGS  AND  STAYS  93 

Boning  wires  are  the  more  slender  steels  and  are 
used  in  corsets  usually  in  groups  of  two.  They  are 
made  of  the  same  materials  as  the  side  and  back  steels. 

The  front  corset  steels  have  riveted  upon  them 
clasps  which  are  nickel-plated  on  brass.  The  steels 
are  either  plated,  covered  with  composition  of  rubber, 
or  are  otherwise  protected  against  rust.  The  front 
steels  are  sold  in  a  casing  ready  to  be  sewed  on  the 
corset. 

Collar  Bones  and  Supports 

Collar  supports  and  bones  come  in  three  distinct 
styles:  silk  covered  wires,  featherbones,  and  celluloid. 

The  most  popular  and  practical  supports  for  thin, 
transparent  collars  are  silk  covered  wires.  These  are 
of  two  kinds :  a  three-strand  twisted  wire,  silk-covered, 
and  a  wavy  wire.  Both  of  these  come  in  %-inch 
width  varying  from  2  to  4  inches  in  height. 

The  twisted  wires  are  very  strong  and  quite  invisible. 
They  have  two  small  eyelets,  by  which  they  are  sewed 
into  the  collar.  The  eyelets  are  dipped  into  a  celluloid 
composition  which  seals  the  joining  so  that  the  thread 
used  in  sewing  the  supports  into  the  collar  cannot  slip 
out. 

The  wavy  wires  usually  have  one  eyelet  at  each  end. 
Those  of  the  best  quality  have  the  eyelets  protected 
in  the  same  way  as  the  twisted  wires.  Others  have 


94  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

cushioned  tops  that  are  made  by  buttonholing  about 
the  eyelets.  These  are  especially  satisfactory  because 
they  are  soft.  A  third  kind  has  the  ends  sewed  into 
a  tape. 

Collar  featherbone  is  narrow  and  usually  covered 
with  silk  in  black  and  white.  It  is  packed  in  coils 
containing  36  yards  and  is  sold  to  the  consumer  by 
the  yard.  For  light  collars  these  supports  are  a  little 
too  heavy. 

Celluloid  stays  are  made  in  varying  heights  from 
2  to  4  inches.  They  are  in  casings  from  which  they 
can  be  removed  very  easily,  but  these  are  not  now  used 
at  all  by  the  best  trade. 

Collar  Frames 

Collar  frames  of  either  twisted  or  wavy  wire  are 
made  to  support  all  kinds  of  collars  the  straight,  tight 
fitting  or  the  flaring,  fancy  sort.  Each  season's 
changes  brings  in  new  styles  in  these  frames. 

Net  Guimpes 

Net  guimpes  are  made  of  washable  net,  boned,  in 
sizes  12  to  15  inches,  in  black  and  white. 


Chapter  XII 
ELASTIC  GOODS 

Types 

Elastics  are  narrow  fabrics  made  either  on  looms 
or  on  braiding  machines.  This  difference  in  con- 
struction divides  them  into  two  types,  woven  elastics 
and  braided  elastics. 

Woven  Elastics 

The  larger  number  of  elastics,  especially  in  the  wider 
and  fancy  goods  are  woven.  Woven  elastic  is  made 
on  the  narrow  fabric  loom.  The  warp  threads  of 
yarn  and  of  rubber  are  set  up  together,  the  rubber 
being  stretched  to  equal  the  yarn  threads  in  length. 
The  filling  or  weft  threads  are  put  in  in  such  a  way 
that  they  completely  cover  the  rubber  and  they  are 
held  in  place  by  being  woven  through  the  warp  threads. 
Very  intricate  designs  like  those  of  fancy  suspenders 
and  garters  may  be  woven  in  this  type  of  elastic. 
The  fancy  frilled  elastic  garter  is  woven,  the  frilled 
part  being  made  without  elastic,  so  that  when  the 
tension  of  the  loom  is  removed,  the  elastic  rubber 

95 


96  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

draws  up  the  center  part  and  leaves  the  edges  in  the 
form  of  frills  or  ruffles.  After  the  elastic  web  is 
woven,  it  is  steamed,  sized,  and  calendered  to  give  it 
finish.  Then  it  is  packed  in  whatever  form  the  trade 
requires. 

Materials  in  Woven  Elastics 

Carded  cotton,  cotton  lisle,  which  has  been  combed 
and  gassed,  mercerized  cotton,  artificial  silk,  and  silk 
are  all  used  in  making  elastic  webbing.  The  char- 
acteristics of  a  good  elastic  are  the  fine  strong  yarn 
which  is  used  in  its  construction  and  which  results  in 
a  neat  compact  fabric,  and  the  sturdy  elasticity  of  the 
rubber. 

Kinds  of  Woven  Elastics 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  woven  elastic, 
but  the  following  are  the  kinds  generally  handled  in 
the  Notion  Department: 

Garter  and  hose  supporter 

Corset 

Hat 

Girdle 

Garter  and  Hose  Supporter  Elastics 

Plain  elastic  webbing,  used  for  garters  and  hose 
supporters,  is  made  of  carded  cotton,  cotton  lisle  (yarn 
that  has  been  combed  and  gassed)  of  various  grades, 


ELASTIC  GOODS  97 

and  mercerized  cotton.  They  are  made  in  widths  % 
to  i%  inches,  in  black  and  white.  In  most  of  the 
qualities  the  wider  sizes,  %  to  i%  inches,  are  also 
made  in  colors.  For  rompers  and  bloomers,  lisle 
elastic  in  widths  %,  %,  and  %  inch  is  made  in  colors 
as  well  as  in  black  and  white.  The  most  approved 
method  of  putting  up  elastic  for  the  trade  is  on  reels 
in  12  yard  lengths.  Experience  has  proven  that  heat, 
light,  and  grease  cause  rubber  to  deteriorate  very 
quickly,  and  the  reels  give  it  better  protection. 

Corset  Elastics 

Corset  and  brassiere  elastics  are  made  of  very  firm 
elastic  webbing  with  a  twilled  weave.  They  come  in 
white,  pink,  and  black,  in  widths  1 24  up  to  5  and  6 
inches,  the  2  and  3  inch  widths  being  the  most  popular. 
Most  of  these  webs  are  constructed  similar  to  hose 
supporter  webs,  the  others  like  the  surgical  weave  or 
loose  mesh. 

Hat  and  Fancy  Elastics 

Hat  elastics  are  usually  braided,  but  plain  elastic 
woven  webbing  in  the  narrow  widths  is  also  used. 

Fancy  garter  elastics  with  frilled  edges  %  to  2  inches 
in  width  are  made  of  mercerized  cotton,  artificial  silk, 
and  silk.  They  are  made  in  all  colors  and  many  de- 
signs. These  fancy  elastics  are  sold  for  arm  bands, 
garters,  and  hose  supporters. 


98  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Girdle  Elastics 

Girdle  or  belting  elastic  is  woven  with  soft  yarn  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  it  very  pliable.  It  comes  in 
white  only. 

Braided  Elastics 

Just  as  there  are  two  types  of  braids,  there  are  two 
types  of  braided  elastic,  flat  and  tubular.  The  braid- 
ing machines  used  to  make  elastic  are  the  same  as 
those  used  to  make  braids,  with  the  addition  of  spools 
or  bobbins,  set  near  the  floor,  for  holding  the  rubber 
thread. 

In  the  flat  elastic  the  rubber  threads  run  lengthwise 
and  parallel  to  each  other,  while  the  cotton  or  covering 
runs  diagonally  over  and  under  the  elastic  threads. 

In  the  round  elastic,  the  braid  is  tubular  with  the 
strand  of  elastic  in  the  center.  There  is  also  a  com- 
bination of  the  flat  and  round,  called  oval  elastic. 

Materials  in  Braided  Elastics 

Braided  elastic  is  covered  with  cotton,  mercerized 
cotton,  and  silk.  It  is  used  largely  for  hats,  for  cords 
for  glasses,  and  in  fancy  work  of  all  kinds.  For  the 
smaller  elastics  the  braided  type  is  especially  good  as 
it  gives  a  finer,  more  finished  appearance. 

Comparison  of  Woven  and  Braided  Elastics 

There  is  one  striking  difference  between  the  woven 


ELASTIC  GOODS  99 

and  braided  forms.  Woven  elastic  can  only  stretch 
as  far  as  the  length  of  the  warp  threads,  while  braided 
elastic  stretches  much  farther.  Naturally  the  strain 
and  wear  on  the  rubber  in  the  latter  is  much  greater, 
In  the  wider  widths  therefore  more  satisfactory  service 
is  secured  from  a  woven  fabric. 

Uses  of  Elastic 

Innumerable  uses  may  be  found  for  elastic.  One 
manufacturer  has  issued  a  suggestive  list  of  250  differ- 
ent uses,  grouping  them  according  to  their  uses  for : 

1.  Bands 

2.  Bags  or  covers 

3.  Belts 

4.  Clothing — women's,  misses',  and  girls' 

5.  Clothing — men's  and  boys' 

6.  Fancy  articles 

7.  Footwear 

8.  Gloves,  mittens,  etc. 

9.  Garters,  suspenders,  etc. 

10.  Hats,  caps,  veils,  hair,  etc. 

11.  Household  needs 

12.  Travelers'  articles 

13.  Underwear 

14.  Toys 

15.  Miscellaneous 

Many  an  awkward  or  inconvenient  misfit  can  be 
remedied  by  attaching  a  bit  of  elastic  to  provide  the 
proper  support. 


Chapter  XIII 

RUBBER  GOODS 

Types  of  Dress  Shields 

There  are  four  types  of  dress  shields  and  one  should 
clearly  understand  their  characteristics  in  order  to  meet 
different  requirements  and  conditions. 

Under  whatever  trade  names  they  may  be  sold  the 
four  types  are: 

Rubber 
Balata 

Rubberized  Cloth 
Pyroxylin 

Characteristics  of  a  Good  Shield 

Probably  there  is  no  one  thing  that  enters  into  the 
making  of  a  dress  of  which  so  much  is  expected  and 
to  which  so  little  consideration  is  given  as  dress 
shields.  A  perfect  dress  shield  must  be  perspiration- 
proof,  free  from  odor,  hygienic,  and  of  the  proper 
size  and  shape.  In  attempting  to  attain  all  of  these 
requisites  at  a  moderate  cost,  the  manufacturers  have 
made  use  of  the  following  materials : 

100 


RUBBER  GOODS  IOI 

Gums,  such  as  rubber,  balata,  and  gutta-percha 
Soluble  cotton,  and  various  oxidizing  oils 

Para  Rubber 

Until  a  few  years  ago  rubber  came  for  the  most  part 
from  Brazil,  though  some  came  froni  the  Guianns 
Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Central  America,  tara  rubber  is 
obtained  by  tapping  the  Hevea  Braziliensis  tree  which 
grows  wild  in  the  great  forests  of  the  South  American 
continent.  Because  of  the  great  difficulties  attendant 
upon  the  collection  of  the  gum,  only  those  trees  are 
tapped  that  grow  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  great 
rivers;  such  as  the  Amazon,  Rio  Negro,  Rio  Madeira, 
etc.  After  the  sap  of  the  rubber  tree  has  been  col- 
lected, the  rubber  is  coagulated  by  means  of  dense 
smoke  produced  by  burning  the  nuts  from  the  Urucuri 
palm.  Para  rubber  comes  to  the  manufacturers  in 
large  "  loaves  "  or  "  biscuits."  It  is  dark,  full  of  dirt, 
sticks,  stones,  vegetable  matter,  etc.  In  washing  the 
shrinkage  is  about  20  per  cent. 

Plantation  Rubber 

Some  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago,  a  few  slips  of  the 
Hevea  Braziliensis  were  taken  to  the  East  Indies  and 
planted.  After  several  failures,  the  transplanting  of 
the  slips  became  so  successful  that  in  the  year  1916, 
the  production  of  plantation  rubber  was  about  125,000 
tons.  Plantation  rubber  is  the  result  of  careful 


. 

102  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

cultivation  and  attention  to  the  details  of  production. 
The  sap  or  latex  of  the  rubber  tree  is  coagulated  by 
acetic  acid  and  washed  on  the  plantation.  The  rubber 
reaches  the  factory  a  light  yellow  color,  with  no  odor 
and  containing  no  foreign  material.  After  washing 
at  the  factory  the  shrinkage  is  less  than  i  per  cent. 

Balata 

Balata  comes  from  the  Guianas  in  sheet  form.  It 
is  the  sap  or  latex  of  a  tree  belonging  to  the  same 
family  as  the  rubber  tree.  The  latex  is  coagulated 
by  exposure  to  the  sunlight.  When  sufficiently  dried, 
the  sheets  are  packed  in  bales  weighing  from  300  to 
1,000  pounds  each.  The  balata  sheets  are  more  or 
less  filled  with  impurities,  which  when  washed  out, 
cause  a  shrinkage  of  about  20  per  cent. 

Manufacture  of  the  Gum  Interlining 

When  the  raw  gum  reaches  the  factory  it  must  be 
washed  and  cleansed.  After  washing,  the  gum  is 
either  dried  slowly  during  several  weeks  at  a  little 
above  living  room  temperature,  or  it  may  be  dried 
within  a  few  hours  by  means  of  a  vacuum  drier. 
Next  it  is  milled  and  compounded  with  mineral  pig- 
ments or  dyes  to  produce  the  desired  color.  The 
amount  of  compound  may  run  from  5  to  50  per  cent 
of  the  weight  of  the  rubber.  After  compounding,  the 
gum  passes  between  steam  heated  steel  rolls  and  is 


RUBBER  GOODS  103 

calendered  or  ironed  out  into  very  thin  sheets,  a  yard 
wide  and  of  unlimited  length.  When  the  gum  leaves 
the  calender  it  is  warm  and  soft.  To  prevent  it  from 
sticking  together,  it  is  powdered  with  starch  or  talcum. 
After  cooling,  the  sheets  of  gum  are  rolled  up  into 
great  bolts  and  allowed  to  remain  so  for  at  least  two 
weeks,  so  that  the  gum  may  shrink. 

The  manipulation  of  rubber  and  balata  is  practically 
the  same  up  to  this  point  but  in  the  next  few  steps 
the  process  is  different.  The  rubber  is  cut  into  shield 
shape.  The  exact  line  of  the  arm  curve  is  cut  with 
a  sharp  knife,  and  the  two  pieces  joined  together  at 
this  curve.  The  rubber,  not  yet  vulcanized,  adheres  so 
firmly  that  the  two  sections  are  practically  one  piece  of 
rubber.  The  next  process  is  vulcanization. 

Vulcanization 

Vulcanization  is  a  chemical  combination  of  sulphur 
with  rubber  to  make  it  durable  and  to  give  it  an  elastic 
property.  Unless  rubber  is  vulcanized  it  is  absolutely 
useless. 

There  are  three  methods  of  vulcanization :  first,  the 
"  cold  cure,"  or  vulcanizing  the  rubber  in  a  vapor  of 
sulphur  obtained  from  the  vaporization  of  sulphur 
chlorid ;  second,  the  "  hot  cure  "  by  which  rubber  is 
mixed  with  flour  of  sulphur  and  heated  in  steam  to  a 
temperature  higher  than  the  melting  point  of  sulphur ; 


104  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

third,  the  "  dip  method  "  where  very  thin  rubber  sheets 
are  dipped  into  liquid  sulphur  chlorid. 

The  thin  sheets  of  balata  are  cut  into  shield  shapes, 
and  the  two  pieces  are  joined  together,  but  are  not 
vulcanized.  From  this  point,  the  manufacture  of  the 
gum  shields  from  the  two  products  is  again  the  same. 

The  gum  interlining  is  covered  with  various  ma- 
terials such  as  lawn,  nainsook,  silk,  satin,  sateen, 
absorbent  cloth,  etc.  The  covers  are  bound  with  bias 
seam  tape  and  after  several  inspections  are  ready  for 
packing  and  shipping. 

Manufacture  of  Water-Proofed  Cloth 

Cloth  such  as  nainsook  may  be  made  water-proof  by 
spreading  or  calendering  on  it  a  very  thin  film  that 
will  not  permit  moisture  either  to  pass  through  the 
cloth  or  to  enter  its  fibers.  There  are  two  types  of 
water-proofed  cloth  in  general  use,  the  rubber  coated 
and  pyroxylin. 

Rubber  Coated  Cloth 

Nainsook  may  be  coated  either  by  running  the  cloth 
through  calender  rolls,  forcing  a  very  thin  sheet  of 
rubber  to  adhere  to  the  cloth,  or  the  cloth  may  be 
run  on  a  spreading  machine,  whereby  a  solution  of 
rubber  compound  is  spread  on  the  cloth  to  produce 
the  desired  film.  After  the  cloth  has  been  water- 


RUBBER  GOODS  105 

proofed  it  is  cut  in  the  desired  shapes,  and  the  two 
pieces  of  the  shield  are  cemented  together  and  vulcan- 
ized. The  rubber  coated  interlinings  are  put  through 
the  same  process  of  manufacture  as  other  shields. 

Pyroxylin 

Nainsook  is  coated  with  a  combination  of  soluble 
cotton,  that  is,  cotton  very  similar  to  "  gun  cotton," 
and  castor  oil.  The  water-proofing  material  is  spread 
on  nainsook  in  the  same  way  as  rubber,  the  cloth  is 
cut  into  shield  interlinings,  cemented,  and  manufac- 
tured as  other  shields.  Pyroxylin  coating  need  not  be 
vulcanized. 

Comparison  of  Shields 

In  comparing  shields,  the  high-grade  sheet  gum 
shield  is  unquestionably  the  best.  It  will  give  far 
greater  value  for  the  money  invested  than  rubberized 
or  pyroxylin  coated  shields,  although  these  have  the 
advantage  of  being  lighter  in  weight.  The  gum 
shields  can  be  made  almost  pure  white  or  in  very 
delicate  colors.  One  can  distinguish  the  two  types 
quite  easily.  There  is  a  double  cover  for  the  gum 
shield  and  generally  only  a  single  one  for  the  coated 
cloth  shield.  The  coated  cloth  shield  is  seamed  in  the 
arm  curve  with  cement,  making  the  chances  of  leaking 
much  greater  than  with  the  gum  shield.  To  deter- 


106  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

mine  the  kind  of  shield,  look  on  the  inner  side.     If 
the  seam  is  cemented  it  is  made  of  a  coated  cloth. 

There  is  very  little  difference  in  the  appearance  of 
a  rubber  and  a  balata  shield.  A  balata  shield  is  in- 
clined to  be  stiff  but  this  stiffness  disappears  when  the 
shield  comes  in  contact  with  the  warmth  of  the  body. 
It  is  odorless,  comfortable  to  wear,  and  gives  good 
satisfaction.  A  rubber  shield  is  very  soft  to  the  touch 
but  has  been  known  to  give  off  a  disagreeable  odor 
upon  coming  in  contact  with  perspiration.  Because  of 
its  vulcanization,  a  rubber  shield  will  stand  more  heat, 
such  as  warm  water,  hot  surfaces,  etc. 

Sizes 

In  selecting  shields  saleswomen  and  purchasers 
should  be  very  careful  to  choose  the  right  size. 
Many  people  are  inclined  to  buy  shields  too  small. 
There  are  ten  sizes,  the  smallest  being  numbered  i 
and  the  largest  10.  Most  women  will  find  size  3  or  4 
large  enough. 

Shapes  and  Styles  of  Shields 

There  are  shapes  to  meet  every  need  and  if  greater 
care  were  used  in  selection  fewer  dresses  would  be 
ruined  and  fewer  women  would  blame  the  manufac- 
turers and  sellers  of  shields. 

The  standard  shapes  are : 


RUBBER  GOODS 


107 


Regular,  with  both  flaps  the  same  size  and  of 
equal  width  and  length. 

Shirt  waist,  with  both  flaps  the  same  size,  but 
shorter  than  the  regular  size. 

Short  flap,  with  one  flap  shorter  than  the  other. 

Long  point,  with  flaps  the  same  size,  but  the  part 
of  the  shield  that  comes  to  the  front  has  a 
higher  point  than  the  one  in  the  back.  These 
are  especially  desirable  for  stout  women. 

Coat  shields,  with  two  flaps  either  the  same  width 
or  one  wider  than  the  other.  These  shields 
are  made  with  a  satin  or  sateen  inside  to  match 
the  color  of  the  lining. 


Regular  Shirt  Waist  Short  Flap  Long  Point 

Figure  15.    Styles  of  Shields 

(Courtesy  of  Omo  Manufacturing  Co.) 

Coverings  are  of  silk,  nainsook,  absorbent  cotton 
material,  or  linen  mesh  for  hot  weather,  and  satin  or 
sateen  to  match  the  linings  of  coats. 

Colors  are  white,  black,  flesh,  and  special  colors. 


108  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

How  to  Sew  in  a  Shield 

The  very  best  shield  is  of  very  little  value  unless 
properly  attached  to  the  dress.  Pinning  in  shields  is 
never  satisfactory,  as  the  shield  is  almost  sure  to  curl 
up  and  will  thus  be  of  no  protection.  If  a  customer 
does  not  care  to  be  troubled  with  sewing  in  shields, 
she  may  purchase  detachable  shields  which  are  de- 
sirable as  they  may  be  adjusted  in  various  ways. 

Washing  Shields 

Another  very  important  thing  to  consider  in  the 
life  of  a  shield  is  the  washing.  Always  read  carefully 
the  directions  given  by  the  manufacturer,  because  not 
all  kinds  of  shields  should  be  washed  in  the  same  way. 

Sheet  Rubber  Shields.  Wash  in  warm  water,  add- 
ing a  few  drops  of  ammonia.  Dry  in  natural  room 
temperature  and  keep  away  from  a  very  hot  surface. 
When  dry,  iron  with  a  moderately  hot  iron.  Never 
use  naphtha  or  soap  made  of  mineral  oils  for  it  will 
injure  the  rubber.  In  fact,  it  is  wiser  never  to  use 
any  soap  on  rubber. 

Balata  Shields.  Soak  in  cold  soap  suds,  using  only 
a  good  white  soap  like  ivory.  Scrub  with  a  stiff 
brush,  rinse  in  clear  cold  water,  shape  carefully  while 
wet,  and  dry  thoroughly.  Do  not  iron. 

Rubberised  Cloth  Shields.  Wash  in  the  same  way 
as  rubber  shields,  but  never  boil  as  the  two  pieces  of 
rubberized  cloth  are  held  together  by  a  cement. 


RUBBER  GOODS  109 

Pyroxylin  Shields.  Wash  in  warm  water.  When 
dry  smooth  out  with  a  moderately  heated  iron.  They 
are  washed  practically  in  the  same  way  as  rubber. 

Standard  Shields 

The  following  standard  shields  illustrate  each  of 
the  different  types : 

Sheet  rubber  shields :     Gem,  Elva,  White  Clover, 

Amolin  covered  with  absorbent  cotton  cloth. 
Rubberized  cloth  shields :     Trilite,  Featherweight. 
Balata :     Omo. 
Pyroxylin :     Juno,  Armia,  Naiad. 

Sanitary  Goods 

It  has  been  only  within  a  few  years  that  most  of  the 
articles  sold  in  the  Notion  Department  as  sanitary 
goods  have  been  manufactured,  but  now  they  are 
doubtless  permanent  goods.  They  may  be  classified 
as : 

Sanitary  aprons  and  other  water-proof  articles 

Sanitary  belts 

Sanitary  napkins 

Sanitary  Aprons 

Sanitary  aprons,  sanitary  sheeting,  infants'  pants 
and  diapers,  infants'  bibs,  and  similar  goods  are  all 
made  of  water-proof  cloth.  There  are  two  types  of 
such  materials ;  cloth  covered  with  pyroxylin  and  cloth 


HO  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

covered  with  rubber.  (For  further  information  see 
part  of  this  chapter  relating  to  "Shields.")  The 
cloth  water-proofed  with  the  rubber  sheet  is  the  purer 
form  and  will  give  longer  service.  It  is  specially 
desirable  for  sheeting  and  similar  articles  that  get  hard 
wear. 

Sanitary  Belts 

Sanitary  belts  are  of  two  types :  those  made  of  soft 
woven  elastic  and  those  made  of  webbing,  heavy 
coutil,  or  other  material  bound  on  the  edges.  The 
former  are  easily  adjustable  and  comfortable  to  wear; 
the  latter  are  designed  to  fit  closely  and  are  considered 
by  many  to  be  more  satisfactory. 

Sanitary  Napkins 

Sanitary  napkins  are  of  two  types,  washable  and 
non-washable.  The  washable  ones  are  made  of  diaper 
cloth  or  loosely  knitted  goods.  The  most  desirable 
kind  is  made  so  that  a  number  of  thicknesses  of  the 
material  are  folded  into  a  pocket  in  the  center  of  the 
napkin  and  the  ends  are  of  only  double  material.  The 
unwashable  are  made  of  absorbent  cotton,  covered 
with  a  thin  open-meshed  cloth. 


Chapter  XIV 

SAFETY  PINS  AND  FANCY  PINS 

Types  of  Safety  Pins 

The  same  types  of  wire  are  used  in  the  making  of 
safety  pins  as  for  common  pins,  but  they  are  differently 
finished.  The  types  are : 

Steel  safety  pins,  plated  with  copper  and  nickel. 
Brass  safety  pins,  plated  with  nickel. 
Bessemer  steel  or  adamantine  safety  pins,  plated 
with  tin  or  nickel. 

Steel  safety  pins  are  first  plated  with  copper  and 
then  nickeled  rather  than  plated  with  tin  as  are  com- 
mon pins.  Brass  safety  pins  are  usually  nickeled,  al- 
though some  are  polished  so  as  to  look  like  gold  or 
japanned  in  either  a  dull  or  shiny  finish.  (Japan  is 
really  a  black  varnish  that  is  baked  on  the  pins.) 
Bessemer  steel  safety  pins  are  not  plated  first  with 
copper,  but  are  plated  directly  with  nickel  or  tin. 

Comparison  of  Different  Types 

Steel  safety  pins,  plated  first  with  copper  and  then 

XXI 


112  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

with  nickel,  are  made  of  a  very  stiff,  finely  tempered 
grade  of  steel  wire.  Owing  to  the  stiffness  of  the 
wire,  these  pins  are  much  smaller  in  diameter  than  any 
brass  pin  and  therefore  make  a  much  smaller  hole  in 
the  fabric.  Two  platings  are  given  them  as  a  pro- 
tection against  rust.  They  are  usually  put  up  12  pins 
to  a  card. 

The  highest  grade  of  brass  safety  pins  has  a  metal 
guard  around  the  coil  to  prevent  its  catching  in  the 
material,  and  a  tongue  in  the  center  of  the  head  so  that 
the  pin  can  be  slipped  in  from  either  side.  These  sell 
at  about  the  same  price  as  steel  safety  pins.  With  the 
brass  pin  there  is  no  possibility  of  rust,  but  the  hole 
made  by  the  pin  is  larger  than  in  the  case  of  the  steel 
pin  and  the  pin  bends  more  easily.  The  cheaper 
grades  of  brass  safety  pins  are  made  from  smaller  wire 
and  are  therefore  less  stiff;  neither  do  they  have  a 
guard  over  the  coil. 

The  cheapest  grade  of  safety  pins  is  also  made  of 
steel,  but  of  a  quality  more  like  iron.  The  wire  is  not 
so  stiff,  therefore  a  larger  size  must  be  used.  These 
pins  are  plated  with  nickel  or  tin.  Cheap  steel 
pins  should  never  be  used  where  there  is  any  fear  of 
rust. 

The  tests  for  distinguishing  brass,  steel,  and  iron 
safety  pins  from  one  another  are  the  same  as  for  com- 
mon pins. 


SAFETY  PINS  AND  FANCY  PINS  113 

Qualities  of  a  Good  Safety  Pin 

1.  The  pin  must  be  strong,  sharp,  and  well  pointed. 

2.  The  point  must  be  sharp  and  the  metal  "built  up" 
well  in  back  of  the  point  so  that  the  point  will  not 
bend  easily. 

3.  The  cap  should  allow  the  pin  to  be  opened  from 
either  side. 

Manufacture 

In  making  safety  pins,  the  caps  are  first  cut  and 
formed  by  one  operation  on  an  automatic  power  press 
into  which  is  fed  a  strip  of  sheet  brass.  The  wires 
are  made  on  the  automatic  machine  which  cuts,  points, 
and  winds.  The  heads  are  then  attached  to  the  wire 
by  a  foot  press.  The  better  grade  safety  pins  have  a 
guard  on  the  spring  or  coil.  This  guard  is  made  on  a 
power  press  similar  to  the  type  used  for  the  head  and 
it  is  attached  by  foot  presses. 

Safety  pins  in  ordinary  use  are  sold  in  sizes  oo,  o, 
i,  2,  2%,  3,  and  4.  The  larger  sizes,  as  6,  8,  and  10, 
are  commonly  called  blanket  pins.  There  are  12  pins 
on  a  card  and  12  cards  in  a  box. 

History 

The  use  of  the  safety  pin  dates  back  to  the  early 
Egyptian,  Roman,  and  Greek  days.  Then  they  were 
hand-made  of  gold  and  silver,  practically  in  the  same 


114  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

shapes  as  those  used  today.  In  some  cases  they  were 
covered  with  jewels,  examples  of  which,  taken  from 
mummies  and  excavations,  are  found  in  museums 
throughout  the  world. 

The  safety  pin  used  today  is  strictly  a  triumph  of 
American  genius.  It  was  made  first  in  1804  with  the 
guard  on  only  one  side  of  the  pin.  It  has  been  im- 
proved at  various  times  since  then,  the  latest  one  hav- 
ing the  guard  opening  on  either  side,  with  the  tongue 
in  the  center  of  the  head.  It  now  has  also  a  guarded 
spring.  All  steel  safety  pins  are  imported.  Brass 
and  adamantine  are  either  imported  or  made  in  the 
United  States. 

Shield  Pins 

Shield  pins  are  smaller  sized  brass  safety  pins. 
Some  shield  pins  have  a  small  bend  or  twist  in  the 
back  to  facilitate  pinning  them  on  the  shield. 

Baby  Pins 

Baby  pins  are  fancy  pins  used  to  fasten  babies' 
dresses.  They  are  made  of  solid  and  plated  gold  and 
silver,  often  decorated  with  small  precious  stones  or 
engraving.  They  usually  come  in  sets  of  two  or  three 
and  often  are  joined  to  one  another  with  chains. 

Lingerie  Slides  or  Clasps 

Lingerie  clasps  or  slides  are  used  to  hold  the  various 


SAFETY  PINS  AND  FANCY  PINS  115 

undergarments,  as  undervest,  corset  cover,  and  bras- 
siere, together  on  the  shoulder.  They  are  made  of 
plated  or  solid  gold  and  silver.  Decorations,  if  any, 
are  usually  engraved  or  etched. 

Fancy  Headed  Pins 

Fancy  headed  pins  are  made  with  a  steel  shank  or 
stem  and  a  glass  head,  usually  round.  They  are 
manufactured  in  Aachen,  Germany,  Coblenz,  Bohemia, 
and  England.  All  pins  under  three  inches  in  length, 
with  heads  not  larger  than  a  pea  are  made  by  special 
machinery  which  is  patented  and  made  in  the  factory 
where  the  pins  are  produced.  Fancy  headed  pins  are 
put  up  in  sheets,  on  cards,  or  in  cubes  in  boxes. 

Hat  Pins 

Hat  pins,  flower  pins,  and  other  glass  headed  fancy 
pins  over  three  inches  in  length  are  made  entirely  by 
hand.  Sometimes  the  heads  are  as  large  as  hazel  nuts. 
These  are  also  made  in  Germany  and  Austria.  The 
manufacturing  process  is  as  follows:  the  workman 
holds  the  stem  of  the  pin  in  the  left  hand  and  a  piece 
of  glass  in  stick  form  in  the  right  hand,  over  a  blue 
gas  flame ;  when  the  glass  is  being  reduced  to  a  liquid 
mass,  the  stem  is  twisted  around  in  it.  Various  styles 
of  heads  are  made  according  to  the  manipulation, 
which  of  course  requires  special  skill. 


Chapter  XV 

HOOKS  AND  EYES  AND  SNAP  FASTENERS 

Types  of  Hooks  and  Eyes 

Hooks  and  eyes  may  be  divided  according  to  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  made  into  two  types : 

Brass,  plated  with  tin  or  coated  with  japan. 
Iron  or  adamantine,  plated  with  tin  or  coated 
with  japan. 

Manufacture 

The  wire  out  of  which  the  hooks  and  eyes  are  made 
comes  to  the  factory  in  the  sizes  desired.  It  varies 
from  the  very  fine  wire  used  in  the  tiny  oo  size  of 
hooks  and  eyes  to  the  very  heavy  used  in  the  No.  15, 
the  horse  blanket  size.  The  manufacturing  of  hooks 
and  eyes  is  a  fascinating  series  of  processes  to  watch. 

The  machine  works  automatically  and  at  such  high 
speed  that  one  is  unable  to  see  the  different  operations. 
In  the  hook  machine  the  coil  of  wire  is  placed  so  that 
it  feeds  directly  into  the  machine.  Steel  fingers  grasp 
the  wire,  cut  off  the  desired  length  for  a  hook,  make 
the  thread  eye,  turn  up  the  hump,  and  fold  it  together 

116 


HOOKS  AND  EYES  117 

into  a  hook.     Another  machine,  not  quite  so  compli- 
cated, makes  the  eyes. 

Finishing 

The  finish  depends  largely  upon  the  metal  of  which 
the  wire  is  made  and  is  practically  the  same  as  for 
brass  and  iron  pins.  The  hooks  and  eyes  are  scoured 
and  burnished. 

For  the  white  finish  those  made  of  brass  are  plated 
with  tin  by  an  electric  process.  Those  of  iron  are 
either  plated  with  tin  or  whitened  to  appear  like  tin. 

For  the  black  finish  both  iron  and  brass  hooks  and 
eyes  are  put  through  the  japanning  process. 

Comparison  of  Brass  and  Iron  Hook  and  Eye 

Brass  hooks  and  eyes  are  unquestionably  the  better. 
They  are  rust-proof,  strong,  and  have  a  smooth  finish. 
Iron  is  only  used  because  it  is  cheaper.  Brass  hooks 
and  eyes  usually  cost  about  twice  as  much  as  iron  but 
they  are  many  times  safer  and  more  serviceable. 
When  finished,  brass  and  iron  look  very  much  alike. 
It  is  not  easy  at  a  casual  glance  to  tell  the  differences, 
but  the  following  simple  tests  will  aid : 

A  magnet  will  always  draw  iron  but  never  brass. 
When  iron  hooks  and  eyes  are  exposed  to  moisture 

they  will  rust  but  brass  never  will. 
When  the  plating  of  tin  is  scratched  off  with  a 


Il8  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

sharp  tool,  the  bright,  gold-like  color  of  the 
brass  can  easily  be  recognized,  while  the  iron 
has  a  silvery  appearance. 

Manufacturers  also  help  by  usually  marking  the 
brass  ones  as  such,  or  "Guaranteed  not  to  rust," 
"Rust!  Never!"  or  the  like. 

Styles 

Although  hooks  and  eyes  in  general  are  very  much 
alike,  they  vary  considerably  in  detail.  All  hooks,  al- 
though made  of  one  piece  of  wire,  have  at  least  two 
parts;  the  thread  eyes  and  the  bill.  Most  hooks  to- 
day have  also  a  hump  or  spring  that  prevents  the  eye 
from  slipping  out.  Many  have  specially  shaped  thread 
eyes  by  which  they  may  be  sewed  securely. 

Eyes  are  of  two  kinds:  the  standard  or  round,  and 
the  invisible  or  straight.  One  manufacturer  makes 
the  invisible  eye  with  heart  shaped  thread  eyes,  an- 
other with  triangular  thread  eyes.  Both  of  these 
offer  a  secure  and  easy  means  of  sewing  on  the  eye. ' 
Either  is  better  than  the  round  thread  eyes  that  will 
slide  even  when  sewed  on  very  carefully. 

The  round  eye  is  used  where  the  fastening  requires 
the  edges  of  the  garment  to  meet  only,  the  lap  being 
very  slight;  the  invisible  where  there  is  a  broad  lap 
for  the  fastening. 


HOOKS  AND  EYES  119 

Sizes 

There  are  many  sizes  of  hooks  and  eyes.  The 
greatest  satisfaction  is  obtained  by  using  the  correct 
6ize  for  the  purpose,  as: 

No.  oo  or  o,  for  laces  and  chiffons 
No.  o  or  i,  for  collars 
No.  2  or  3,  for  waist  linings  and  girdles 
No.  4,  for  skirt  bands 

The  smaller  sizes  should  be  used  on  the  lighter 
weight  materials;  for  example,  a  No.  2  size  might  be 
used  for  fastening  a  silk  dress,  where  the  same  sort 
of  closing  on  a  serge  dress  would  be  better  served 
with  a  No.  3. 

How  Sold 

The  method  of  sewing  hooks  and  eyes  on  the  cards 
varies  with  each  manufacturer.  However,  there  are 
usually  2  dozen  hooks,  and  from  2  to  4  dozen  eyes, 
some  round  and  some  invisible,  on  every  card  of  the 
better  grades  of  brass  hooks  and  eyes.  One  manu- 
facturer puts  2  dozen  hooks,  2  dozen  invisible  eyes, 
and  i  dozen  round  eyes  into  an  envelope  instead  of 
putting  them  on  cards.  In  some  cases  where  a  set  of 
both  plain  and  invisible  eyes  is  not  given,  there  will 
be  3  dozen  of  the  hooks  and  eyes  instead  of  the  2 
usually  given. 


120  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Sewing  on  Hooks  and  Eyes 

The  main  consideration  in  sewing  on  hooks  and 
eyes  is  to  have  them  secure.  On  a  tight-fitted  waist 
the  hooks  and  eyes  are  sewed  ij/g  inches  apart,  alter- 
nating first  a  hook,  then  an  eye.  A  hook  should  be 
sewed  on  through  the  thread  eyes,  close  to  the  hump, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  bill;  plain  eyes,  through  the 
thread  eyes  and  about  %  inch  above  on  the  curve  of 
the  eye  proper.  Cotton  thread  is  preferable  to  silk 
for  sewing,  as  silk  stretches  and  gives  with  wear. 

Hook  and  Eye  Tape 

Hook  and  eye  tape  offers  a  very  neat  and  labor- 
saving  method  of  attaching  hooks  and  eyes.  It  is  very 
secure  as  each  hook  and  eye  is  riveted  into  the  tape. 
It  serves  several  purposes  when  used  on  a  waist  lining, 
as  a  means  of  fastening,  as  a  finish  for  the  edge,  and 
a  casing  for  the  boning.  It  comes  in  black  and  white 
and  on  cotton  and  silk  tape,  the  former  to  be  used 
where  firmness  and  strength  is  desired;  the  second, 
for  a  daintier  finish. 

History 

Hooks  and  eyes  are  generally  considered  a  modern 
method  of  fastening  for  garments,  but  they  have  their 
origin  as  far  back  as  the  fourteenth  century  in  what 
was  then  referred  to  as  the  crochet  and  loop.  Many 
references  to  hooks  and  eyes  are  found  in  literature. 


SNAP  FASTNERS  121 

In  the  "Jest  Widow  Edith"  written  in  1573  is  the 
quotation :  "The  widow  borrowed  a  cap,  a  hat,  three 
kerchieus,  a  couple  of  sylver  pins,  a  pair  of  hooks,  and 
no  more."  Later,  in  about  1697,  in  "Aubrey  Lives" 
is  the  statement :  "  Then  their  breeches  were  fastened 
to  the  doubletts  with  points,  then  came  hook  and 
eies." 

The  first  hooks  and  eyes  were  crudely  fashioned  by 
hand  from  wire.  Redditch,  England,  the  city  now  so 
famous  for  needles,  was  the  first  home  of  machine- 
made  hooks  and  eyes.  Even  among  the  early  colonists 
we  hear  of  their  use.  It  is  recorded  that  in  1643  a 
lady  in  Maryland  paid  ten  pounds  of  tobacco  for  hooks 
and  eyes.  It  was  not  until  the  first  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  that  the  industry  was  started  in  the 
United  States.  One  of  the  greatest  improvements 
added  was  the  hump,  patented  in  1889  by  the  DeLong 
Hook  and  Eye  Co.  The  unusually  rapid  development 
of  the  industry  demonstrates  the  great  satisfaction 
given  by  this  method  of  fastening. 

Snap  Fasteners 

Snap  fasteners  are  the  most  modern  and  convenient 
of  garment  fasteners.  The  first  snap  fasteners  were 
put  on  the  market  about  15  years  ago.  However,  it 
has  been  within  the  last  10  years  that  they  have  become 
of  real  commercial  importance.  They  are  now  used 


122  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

for  many  purposes  other  than  dress  fastening;  for 
example,  attaching  dress  shields  in  a  waist,  fastening 
slip  covers  for  cloths,  furniture,  pianos  and  pillows, 
and  fixing  rugs  to  the  floor.  One  manufacturer  has 
classified  75  different  uses  for  his  snap  fasteners  and 
suggests  the  proper  size  and  strength  for  each  use. 

There  are  two  parts  to  a  snap  fastener — the  "stud" 
and  the  "socket"  (see  Figure  16).  At  the  present  time 
there  are  on  the  market  two  distinct  types  of  snap 
fasteners,  the  difference  being  in  the  socket.  The  studs 
are  practically  the  same. 

In  one  type  the  socket,  shaped  like  a  dome  reinforced 
with  a  wire  spring,  receives  the  stud.  Of  this  type 
there  are  two  kinds — one  in  which  the  walls  of  the 
socket  are  round  and  the  spring  curved,  both  character- 
istics tending  to  make  the  stud  stick  more  tenaciously 
Into  the  socket;  the  other  in  which  the  walls  of  the 
slome  or  socket  are  straight  and  the  wire  straight. 

The  second  type  is  a  much  flatter  snap  fastener.  A 
hole  takes  the  place  of  the  dome.  Where  this  is  rein- 
forced with  a  spring  it  is  a  very  satisfactory  snap. 
The  socket  is  flat,  so  that  it  lies  close  to  the  material 
without  bulging  or  drawing  the  material  in  any  way. 
The  flat  feature  makes  it  almost  invisible  and  in  laun- 
dering, the  iron  readily  passes  over  this  smooth  sur- 
face without  injuring  the  material.  The  flat  socket 
has  the  advantage  of  being  reversible,  that  is,  it  cannot 


SNAP  FASTENERS  123 

be  sewed  on  wrong  because  both  sides  are  alike  —  flat. 
The  flat  snaps,  not  having  a  spring,  are  just  as  invisible, 
but  are  weak,  standing  but  a  slight  sidewise  strain. 

Manufacture 

Snap  fasteners  of  the  first  type  mentioned  were 
originally  imported  largely  from  Austria  and  Germany, 
and  the  cheapness  of  foreign  labor  enabled  these  for- 
eign manufacturers  to  sell  their  snaps  to  the  American 
market  at  a  price  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  Ameri- 
can manufacturers  employing  American  labor  to  meet. 
The  recent  war,  however,  cut  off  the  supply  of  German 
and  Austrian  goods,  and  gave  the  American  manu- 
facturers their  opportunity.  Today  a  number  of  con- 
cerns in  this  country  are  making  first-class  snap 
fasteners. 


of  Snap  Fasteners 

The  dome-socket  type  of  snap  fastener  comes  in  8 
sizes  suitable  for  dresses  and  5  larger  sizes  for  heavier 
use. 

5-0  for  chiffon,  lace,  veiling,  tulle,  etc. 
4-0  for  organdy,  voile,  etc. 
3-0  for  light  weight  waists,  lawn,  silk,  etc. 
y    2-0  for  heavier  wash  waists,  linen,  cambric,  etc. 
O  for    light    weight    and    wash    skirts,    house 
dresses,  undergarments,  bathing  suits,  etc. 


124  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

1  for  medium  weight  woolen  skirts. 

2  for  heavy  weight  woolen  skirts. 

3  for  slippers,  etc. 

The  flat  wire  spring  fasteners  are  made  in  sizes 
oo,  o,  i,  2,  and  3. 

Comparison  of  Grades 

The  better  grade  fastener  is  made  of  the  best  quality 
brass,  with  a  number  of  coats  of  nickel  or  japan  ap- 
plied by  the  most  approved  methods.  They  are  care- 
fully finished  in  all  particulars.  The  edges  are  curled 
back  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  cut  the  thread.  This  is 
not  done  in  the  cheaper  grades,  which  are  'also  made 
of  brass  but  rolled  much  thinner.  Take  one  between 
the  fingers,  especially  the  ball  part,  and  it  can  be  bent 
out  of  shape  quite  easily.  They  also  receive  less  coats 
of  nickel  or  japan,  and  the  rims  are  raw  so  that  they 
sometimes  cut  the  thread.  Furthermore,  they  are  not 
subjected  to  the  same  rigid  inspection  as  the  better 
grade  fasteners. 


Chapter  XVI 

MISCELLANEOUS  DRESS  FINDINGS 

Dress  Weights 

Dress  weights  are  made  of  lead.  The  smaller  ones 
are  usually  encased  in  a  braided  tube  or  a  woven 
double  tape.  They  are  put  up  in  black  and  in  white,  12 
yards  to  a  box,  and  sold  by  the  yard.  The  larger 
sizes  are  uncovered  and  must  be  covered  before  sewing 
into  a  garment. 

Cordings 

There  are  two  types  of  cordings.  The  most  desir- 
able kind  has  a  center  core  of  untwisted  yarn  with  a 
tubular  plaited  or  braided  fabric  around  it.  When 
the  cord  is  used  for  holding  out  a  garment,  the  center 
of  the  yarn  has  a  single  cord  of  featherbone.  The 
second  type  is  really  a  three-cord  cording ;  that  is,  it  is 
made  up  of  three  cords  of  soft  yarn  twisted  together. 
This  is  not  as  smooth  a  cord  as  the  former.  The 
irregularities  of  the  twisted  yarn  will  show  through 
and  wear  rough,  even  when  the  covering  material  is 
properly  cut  on  the  true  bias. 

125 


126  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Cuff  and  Collar  Buttons 

Cuff  and  collar  buttons  are  made  of  many  ma- 
terials :  mother-of-pearl,  celluloid,  bone,  porcelain,  and 
plated  metals. 

The  name  "  mother-of-pearl  "  or  "  salt  water  pearl  " 
applies  to  the  shell  of  the  oyster  that  produces  precious 
pearls,  which  are  found  in  the  Red  Sea,  Persian  Gulf, 
around  the  South  Sea  Islands,  and  Australia.  The 
shells  are  softened  by  soaking.  Then  disks  or  blanks 
of  the  desired  size  are  cut  from  the  shells  by  a  tubular 
saw.  The  outer  bark  is  removed  from  each  blank 
and  the  blank  is  ground  into  various  shapes  and  styles 
of  cuff  and  collar  buttons  and  other  buttons.  Patterns 
may  be  carved  on  the  button.  They  are  made  smooth 
by  tumbling  them  into  a  revolving  tub  and  later  polish- 
ing them  on  rag  wheels.  Collar  and  cuff  buttons 
made  of  mother-of-pearl  are  very  beautiful  as  well  as 
serviceable. 

Celluloid  buttons  are  molded  under  hydraulic  pres- 
sure into  the  form  of  cuff  and  collar  buttons.  These 
are  cheap. 

Porcelain  and  bone  rank  among  the  very  cheapest 
of  collar  buttons.  Porcelain  buttons  are  made  of  clay 
and  baked  in  about  the  same  way  that  our  porcelain 
dishes  are,  in  kilns  under  great  heat.  Bone  buttons 
are  cut  or  turned  out  on  lathes. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  metal  buttons.     Some 


MISCELLANEOUS  DRESS  FINDINGS          127 

are  made  of  one  piece;  others  are  combined  with 
mother-of-pearl ;  some  are  plated  with  gold  and  silver ; 
and  others  are  of  solid  gold. 

Bachelor  Buttons 

The  term  "  bachelor  button  "  is  applied  to  a  metal 
button  which  may  be  attached  by  means  of  a  snap 
fastener.  (See  Chapter  XXII.) 

Neck  Bands 

Neck  bands  for  shirts  are  made  ready  to  sew  on  the 
shirt.  These  bands  are  either  shrunk  or  unshrunk. 
The  value  of  the  former  is  self-evident.  They  come 
in  sizes  ranging  12  inches  and  upward  in  half-inch 
variations. 


Part  III — Hair  Goods  and  Shoe  Supplies 


INTRODUCTORY  TO  PART  III 

Hair  goods  and  shoe  supplies  are  articles  upon 
which  customers  are  very  dependent. 

The  differences  in  the  wearing  qualities  of  horn  and 
celluloid  and  the  different  grades  of  celluloid  may  be 
useful  and  new  information  to  all  customers  who  use 
hair  goods  and  shoe  supplies.  Hair  nets  also  are  suf- 
ficiently new  to  justify  a  short  description  of  their 
manufacture  and  the  reason  for  the  cost  of  better  ones. 

Different  kinds  of  shoe  dressings  are  used  on  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  leather.  Few  people  know  what  is 
best  for  their  shoes  and  should  be  told  why  one  is 
recommended  more  than  another,  and  not  given  an  un- 
authorized statement  which  they  may  not  believe. 
People  who  have  used  a  dressing  under  a  certain  name 
and  have  found  it  satisfactory  may  ask  for  it  in  a 
store  which  does  not  carry  that  brand.  They  need  to 
be  shown  that  another  brand  may  have  a  similar  com- 
position and  an  equally  good  effect.  It  is  not  a  ques- 
tion of  offering  something  "  just  as  good,"  but 
whether  the  action  on  the  material  is  just  the  same. 

128 


Chapter  XVII 
HAIR  GOODS 

Imitation  Shell  Goods 

The  largest  division  of  hair  goods  is  composed  of 
combs  and  hairpins  made  of  imitation  shell.  These 
may  be  divided  into : 

Side-combs,  made  of  celluloid. 
Back-combs,  made  of  celluloid. 
Barrettes,  made  of  celluloid. 
Hairpins,  made  of  celluloid  and  horn. 

Celluloid 

Practically  all  imitation  shell  goods  are  made  of 
celluloid.  When  one  considers  the  great  range  in  the 
quality  of  these  goods,  it  is  hard  to  believe  that  the 
differences  are  not  due  to  the  celluloid,  but  are  the 
results  of  the  coloring  matter,  the  method  of  making 
the  article,  and  the  finishing. 

How  Celluloid  is  Made 

All  celluloid  is  manufactured  in  the  same  way. 
Cotton  is  spun  and  woven  into  clean  cotton  cloth, 
which  is  then  made  into  tissue  paper.  The  original 

129 


130  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

manufacturer  of  celluloid  defines  it  as  "  an  acid-treated 
tissue  paper  mixed  with  camphor  and  such  coloring 
matter  as  is  needed  to  obtain  the  various  imitations 
which  are  made,  such  as  ivory,  tortoise  shell,  amber, 
etc."  The  processes  in  this  change  from  tissue  paper 
to  celluloid  are  many.  The  paper  is  immersed  in  a 
bath  of  acids  which  reduces  it  to  a  pulp  knowrn  as 
pyroxylin  or  nitrocellulose.  This  is  mixed  with 
camphor  and  then  the  compound  is  dissolved  by  a 
chemical  process.  The  resulting  substance  is  a  plastic 
mass.  It  is  worked  on  large,  slowly  turning,  heated 
rolls  much  as  molasses  is  worked  after  it  is  cooked. 

When  this  mixture  has  been  worked  to  the  proper 
consistency,  it  is  placed  in  a  great  hydraulic  press. 
With  a  high  degree  of  heat  and  tremendous  pressure, 
it  is  reduced  into  a  solid  block  or  cake  about  24  inches 
wide,  50  inches  long  and  3  inches  thick,  which  in  turn 
is  cut  into  sheets  of  the  thickness  necessary  for  the 
making  of  the  articles  required.  These  sheets  must 
dry  and  season,  like  lumber,  or  the  celluloid  would 
warp  when  made  into  hairpins,  combs,  and  other  toilet 
articles.  The  time  required  for  seasoning  varies 
from  three  weeks  to  a  year,  depending  upon  the  thick- 
ness of  the  sheet.  This  adds  an  element  of  cost  that 
is  of  great  significance.  Articles  made  of  a  heavy 
stock  celluloid  are  proportionately  more  expensive 
than  the  amount  of  celluloid  used  would  indicate. 


HAIR  GOODS  131 

Celluloid  may  be  worked  in  the  same  manner  as 
wood,  it  may  be  molded  and  pressed  in  hot  steel  dies 
under  hydraulic  pressure,  or  it  may  be  dissolved  and 
used  in  a  manner  similar  to  japan  or  varnish. 

The  name  "  celluloid "  was  given  to  the  original 
product  and  this  was  so  copyrighted.  As  the  patents 
used  in  the  manufacture  expired,  goods  of  a  like 
nature  were  produced  under  a  score  of  different  names, 
as  Parisian  ivory,  French  ivory,  ivory  pyralin,  Eng- 
lish ivory,  and  fiberloid. 

Side-  or  Back-Combs 

The  difference  between  side-  and  back-combs  lies  in 
the  size  and  design  of  the  combs,  not  in  the  manu- 
facture or  material  used.  Side-combs  always  appear 
in  pairs  and  are  smaller,  lighter,  and  less  elaborately 
decorated  than  the  back-comb.  In  the  medium-priced 
goods  both  side-combs  and  back-combs  are  made  of 
celluloid  or  some  material  of  similar  nature,  in  either 
imitation  shell,  amber,  or  gray  according  to  composi- 
tion. Like  dressing  combs,  there  are  three  types : 

Sawed  tooth  combs 
Cut  tooth  combs 
Pressed  or  molded 

Sawed  Tooth  Combs 

The  sawed  tooth  combs  are  the  most  satisfactory. 


132  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

This  is  because  of  the  method  of  manufacture.  A 
blank  of  celluloid  or  some  similar  form  of  material  in 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  comb  desired  is  used.  In 
making  the  teeth,  the  saw  cuts  straight  from  the  point 
to  the  base  of  the  tooth  and  thus  makes  a  square, 
rectangular  opening  at  the  base  between  the  teeth. 

Cut  Tooth  Combs 

In  the  cut  tooth  combs,  the  blank  is  wider  and  is 
made  in  the  shape  of  two  combs.  When  the  teeth  are 
cut  out,  one  set  comes  out  of  the  space  between  the  set 
of  teeth  of  the  other  comb.  In  other  words,  the  teeth 
are  cut  from  a  single  blank  and  the  two  combs  are 
broken  apart.  This  method  makes  the  opening  at  the 
base  of  the  teeth  wedge-shaped. 

Pressed  or  Molded  Combs 

The  latter  are  made  by  pressing  a  heated  piece  of 
celluloid  under  hydraulic  pressure,  after  which  the  sur- 
plus celluloid  is  removed.  Medium-priced  combs  are 
made  in  this  way.  It  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  them 
from  cut  combs,  although  they  are  lighter  in  weight. 
Large  quantities  of  side-  and  back-combs  are  pressed 
or  molded. 

Comparison 

It  is  very  obvious  that  the  sawed  comb  is  much  more 
expensive  to  produce,  for  two  reasons:  the  celluloid 


HAIR  GOODS  133 

between  the  teeth  is  lost  in  sawdust,  and  it  takes  as 
much  labor  to  saw  one  sawed  comb  as  to  cut  two  cut 
combs.  But  the  results  are  worth  the  difference  in 
cost.  The  hair  is  apt  to  catch  and  pull  and  tear  in  the 
wedge-shaped  openings  at  the  base  of  the  cut  comb, 
while  with  the  sawed  comb  it  passes  easily  through 
the  square  rectangular  openings. 

In  order  to  distinguish  the  type  look  carefully  at  the 
base  of  the  teeth.  If  square  and  if  the  distances  be- 
tween the  teeth  at  the  base  and  the  point  are  practically 
the  same,  it  is  a  sawed  tooth  comb.  If  the  opening  is 
wedge-shaped,  it  is  a  ciit  tooth  or  molded  comb.  The 
tooth  at  one  end  of  a  cut  comb,  when  first  cut  and  be- 
fore finishing,  will  be  spread  out  a  little  from  the  other 
teeth,  as  the  end  tooth  of  the  opposite  comb  comes  out 
of  the  space  between  this  tooth  and  the  rest  of  the 
teeth.  This  tooth  is  bent  into  form  in  the  finishing 
operation,  but  a  little  bulge  can  be  detected  in  the  mate- 
rial at  the  point  of  bending,  which  will  also  help  to 
distinguish  a  cut  comb. 

To  prevent  particles  of  dirt  from  lodging  at  the  base 
of  the  teeth,  the  comb  is  grailed ;  that  is,  the  corners 
of  the  openings  at  the  base  of  the  teeth  are  shaved  off. 
This  is  done  only  on  better  grades. 

Decoration  of  Combs 

Side-combs  and  back-combs  may  be  perfectly  plain 


134  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

or  decorated.  The  decorations  are  of  two  kinds: 
open-work  designs  or  inlaid  flat  forms.  In  the  for- 
mer, the  open-work  parts  are  made  separately  and 
cemented  to  the  comb  proper.  This  is  not  true,  how- 
ever, in  the  higher  priced  and  better  grades  where  the 
ivhole  comb  may  be  made  in  one  piece.  There  are  two 
methods  of  making  the  open  work.  For  the  less  ex- 
pensive combs  the  designs  are  molded  or  pressed  out 
under  hot  steel  dies  in  a  hydraulic  press.  The  better 
ones  are  sawed,  much  as  a  boy  saws  out  a  design  in 
wood  with  a  jig  saw. 

The  flat  designs  worked  out  in  metals  and  brilliants 
are  made  by  a  press  similar  to  a  printing  press.  The 
materials  used  are  gold,  silver,  bronze,  various  other 
metals,  and  their  substitutes.  It  is  difficult  to  distin- 
guish the  precious  metals  from  the  substitutes.  How- 
ever, the  former  will  stand  a  reasonable  amount  of 
wear  and  remain  bright  and  untarnished,  while  the 
latter  will  tarnish  and  wear  away. 

Finishing  of  Combs 

Side-combs  and  back-combs  are  finished  by  buffing 
and  polishing.  This  gives  them  high  luster.  The 
cheapest  ones  are  immersed  in  glacial  acetic  acid, 
which  makes  them  shiny. 

Bnrrettes 

Barrettes  are  used  to  hold  in  place  short  locks  of 


HAIR  GOODS  135 

hair,  especially  the  so-called  "  scolding  locks."  Bar- 
rettes  and  other  hair  ornaments  are  either  molded  or 
pressed  out  by  heated  dies  under  hydraulic  pressure, 
or  sawed.  The  designs  used  and  the  perfection  of 
finish  to  a  large  extent  determine  the  price.  Only  the 
more  expensive  barrettes  and  ornaments  are  sawed, 
the  others  are  pressed  or  molded. 

Imitation  Shell  Hairpins 

Hairpins  made  in  imitation  of  shell,  or  amber,  and 
in  gray,  are  usually  celluloid,  although  a  small  per- 
centage is  horn.  Celluloid  pins  are  made  of  celluloid 
wire  or  rod.  The  wire  is  cut  in  the  desired  lengths. 
It  is  laid  on  a  heater  to  soften  and  then  bent  over  a 
form.  The  better  grades  are  polished  and  finished  by 
careful  buffing.  The  cheaper  ones  are  immersed  in 
glacial  acetic  acid,  which  gives  the  pin  a  bright, 
polished  surface. 

Celluloid  pins  come  in  many  lengths  and  grades. 
The  heavier  ones  are  naturally  the  better.  The  lengths 
vary  from  1%  to  4  or  5  inches. 

The  warping  of  celluloid  pins  is  due  to  poor  season- 
ing and  to  heat.  The  very  light  stock  is  apt  to  warp 
from  the  heat  of  the  head,  unless  perfectly  seasoned. 
The  heavier  ones  seldom  warp,  but  if  they  do,  it  is 
because  they  have  not  been  seasoned  long  enough. 

With  a  little  comparison  and  experience,  it  is  easy 


136  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

to  tell  horn  from  celluloid  hairpins.  Horn  will  break 
by  bending,  especially  in  cold  weather,  much  more 
quickly  than  celluloid.  Horn  loses  its  polish  with 
wear  much  more  quickly  than  celluloid  and  the  hairpin 
is  apt  to  split  at  the  points 

Wire  Hairpins 

Tempered  steel  wire  is  used  in  making  black  lac- 
quered and  bronze  hairpins.  Pins  are  also  made  of 
brass.  A  few  years  ago  brass  as  well  as  steel  was 
employed  for  all  kinds  of  hairpins,  but  because  of  the 
desire  for  the  slenderer  and  at  the  same  time  stiff  pin, 
steel  has  superseded  brass  almost  entirely  except  in 
the  yellow  pins.  Steel  pins  are  finished  with  the  so- 
called  lacquered  japan.  In  lacquering  or  japanning 
cheap  pins  they  are  baked  in  an  oven.  The  better  pins 
are  first  hand-dipped.  The  hand-dipped  pins  are 
strung  on  a  rod  and  immersed  in  the  japan,  and  the 
rod  with  the  pins  on  it  is  then  placed  in  an  oven  for 
baking  the  color  fast  on  the  wire. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  hairpins :  the  tiny,  invisible 
ones,  made  of  very  fine  wire  which  vary  in  length  from 
i%  to  2%  inches,  and  the  regular  hairpins  made  of 
heavier  wire,  in  lengths  from  2  to  4  inches. 

Hairpins  are  either  straight  or  crimped  in  some  way 
to  aid  in  keeping  them  firmly  in  the  hair. 

Hairpins  are  packed  either  in  papers  or  in  boxes. 


HAIR  GOODS  137 

In  papers,  they  are  generally  put  up  in  packages  of 
one  ounce  each,  16  to  a  bundle,  each  bundle  weighing 
a  pound.  The  method  of  packing  in  boxes  varies,  but 
assorted  sizes  and  styles  are  packed  usually  in  indi- 
vidual compartments. 

Types  of  Hair  Nets 

There  are  two  distinct  types  of  hair  nets,  and  each 
type  is  also  made  in  two  styles.  These  are : 

1.  Real  human  hair  nets 

Fringed  or  all-over  nets 
Self-adjusting  cap-shaped  nets 

2.  Silk  nets 

Circular  with  elastic  rubber  band. 
Tied-end  nets,  36  inches  long. 

Human  Hair  Nets 

All  real  human  hair  nets  are  made  by  hand  of  long 
human  hair  especially  prepared  for  the  purpose.  They 
are  made  in  two  distinct  styles:  the  fringe  or  all-over 
net,  and  the  self-adjusting  cap-shaped  net. 

The  fringe  nets  are  constructed  in  a  triangular 
shape.  The  sizes  are  known  by  the  number  of  meshes 
they  contain.  For  example,  the  smallest  net  used  at 
the  present  time  is  26  x  28 ;  that  is,  the  number  26  de- 
notes the  number  of  meshes  along  the  width  of  the  net 
and  28  the  number  along  the  length.  The  next  size  net 


/38  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

is  28  x  30  and  each  size  thereafter  increases  according 
to  the  additional  number  of  meshes  contained.  The 
largest  is  48  x  50,  the  most  popular  38  x  40. 

The  self-adjusting  cap-shaped  net  is  so  constructed 
as  to  be  very  much  like  a  bathing  cap  and  can  be  easily 
drawn  down  over  the  head.  Three  rows  of  small 
meshes  along  the  edge  offer  a  means  of  holding  the 
net  securely.  The  great  advantages  of  this  net  are 
that  it  can  be  adjusted  with  but  little  skill  and  held  in 
place  with  but  a  few  hairpins. 

Nets  made  of  double  strands  are  very  durable.  They 
come  in  both  shapes. 

Colors  of  Human  Hair  Nets 

Human  hair  nets  are  made  in  the  following  shades : 
light  blond,  medium  blond,  ash  blond  (drab),  dark 
blond,  light  brown,  medium  brown,  dark  brown, 
extra  dark  brown,  black,  light  auburn,  medium  auburn, 
dark  auburn,  brick  red,  white,  light  gray,  medium 
gray,  and  dark  gray.  Special  colors  can  be  matched. 

Packing  of  Human  Hair  Nets 

Each  hair  net  is  wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  en- 
closed in  an  envelope.  One  dozen  of  a  given  color  are 
sealed  in  a  dust-proof  and  germ-proof  paraffin  paper 
wrapper. 


HAIR  GOODS  139 

Sources  of  Human  Hair  Nets 

All  real  human  hair  nets  are  imported,  most  of  them 
coming  from  China,  and  they  are  made  of  Chinese 
hair.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  manufacture 
them  here  in  the  United  States,  but  all  efforts  have 
failed,  because  of  the  lack  of  patience  and  skill  of  the 
workers  and  the  cost  of  labor.  A  good  worker  will 
take  a  whole  day  to  make  one  dozen  hair  nets  of  the 
ordinary  size  in  the  self-adjusting  cap-shaped  nets,  or 
of  the  medium  size  fringe  nets.  Even  if  American 
workmen  possessed  the  requisite  skill,  the  manufacture 
of  human  hair  nets  would  still  be  impractical  because 
of  the  prohibitive  cost  of  labor. 

Silk  Nets 

Silk  hair  nets  differ  from  real  hair  nets  not  only 
in  material,  but  also  in  the  size  of  the  mesh  which  is 
generally  smaller.  Silk  nets  are  made  in  France  and 
England.  They  were  formerly  cheaper  than  humai. 
hair  nets,  but  now  the  price  is  about  the  same  and 
the  demand  is  therefore  less. 

Styles  of  Silk  Hair  Nets 

Silk  nets  come  in  three  different  styles:  a  circular 
net,  a  piece  of  flat  netting,  and  an  imitation  of  the 
fringe  net.  The  circular  net  is  made  in  imitation  of 


140  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

the  self-adjusting  cap-shaped  net,  with  an  elastic 
drawn  through  the  outer  meshes.  This  is  the  best 
selling  silk  net,  but  it  has  certain  disadvantages.  The 
elastic  is  almost  certain  to  show  and  is  apt  to  bind 
and  give  a  feeling  of  discomfort  to  the  wearer.  The 
chief  sale  of  this  net  is  in  mill  towns  and  among  the 
negro  trade.  Negroes  use  a  net  made  of  a  rather 
heavy  texture. 

The  second  style,  a  piece  of  flat  netting,  is  usually 
about  36  inches  in  length  and  about  24  to  27  inches 
wide.  It  is  made  on  the  lever  lace-making  machine 
and  is  cut  in  36  inch  lengths  as  one  would  cut  lace  or 
veiling.  The  ends  are  tied  with  a  common  knot  and 
the  net  is  ready  for  use. 

The  imitation  fringe  net  is  an  attempt  to  duplicate 
the  real  hair  net  in  silk.  It  has,  however,  a  very 
limited  sale. 

Silk  nets  are  packed  in  tissue  paper,  and  enclosed 
in  an  envelope. 

Silk  hair  nets  are  made  in  the  following  shades: 
blond,  light  brown,  medium  brown,  dark  brown, 
black,  white,  auburn,  and  gray. 

Hair  Curlers 

Hair  curlers  are  of  many  kinds,  both  in  form  and 
material.  In  all  of  them,  however,  the  hair  is  wrapped 
around  a  part  of  the  curler  and  another  part  of  the 


HAIR  GOODS  141 

curler  is  brought  over  it  to  hold  it  in  place.     The  fol- 
lowing are  a  few  varieties : 

Soft  lead  or  other  metal  curlers  covered  with  a 
fabric  either  woven  or  braided. 

Kid  curlers. 

Rubber  curlers,  made  of  a  bar  of  rubber  with  a 
slit  at  one  end  and  a  knob  at  the  other.  The 
hair  is  wrapped  around  the  bar  near  one  end, 
then  the  knob  is  brought  over  and  slipped  into 
the  slit. 

Electric  curlers,  made  of  a  piece  of  nickel-plated 
metal  about  6  inches  long,  folded  in  the  center 
to  form  a  spring.  It  is  fastened  at  the  ends 
with  a  patented  catch. 

Horn  curlers  like  the  electric  in  general  principle, 
except  that  they  are  made  of  two  pieces  of 
horn,  3  inches  long  and  %  inch  wide,  which 
are  riveted  together  at  one  end  and  fastened 
at  the  other  with  a  catch. 

Hair  Curling  Irons 

From  the  standpoint  of  results  there  are  two  classes 
of  curling  irons:  those  that  curl  the  hair,  and  those 
that  wave  it.  In  construction  they  are  much  alike, 
except  the  iron  that  makes  the  marcel  wave  which  is 
made  up  of  a  number  of  curling  prongs  set  side  by 
side.  The  metal  parts  of  all  curling  irons  are  nickel- 


142  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

plated  and  the  handles  are  usually  of  wood.     For  con 
venience  in  traveling  there  is  a  plain  iron  with  handles 
that   fold  back.     The  circumference   of   the  curling 
prong  determines  the  size  of  the  curl,  so  irons  are 
made  in  different  sizes. 


\ 

\ 


Chapter  XVIII 

SHOE  SUPPLIES 

Shoe  Brushes 

There  are  three  types  of  shoe  brushes : 

Bristle  or  hair 

Dauber 

Felt 

Bristle  or  Hair  Brushes 

The  best  grades  of  bristle  shoe  brushes  are  made 
of  Russian  hog  bristles,  a  cheaper  quality  of  Chinese 
hog  bristles,  and  a  very  cheap  grade  of  tampico  fiber. 
Horsehair  is  used  to  a  very  large  extent  in  the  better 
grades.  The  hairs  from  the  tails  are  stiffer  than  those 
from  the  mane,  and  are  therefore  better.  The  mane 
hair  is  used  for  soft  brushes.  A  good  shoe  brush  is 
very  full  of  bristles. 

Drawing  Bristles  into  Frame 

There  are  three  distinct  methods  of  fastening  the 
bristles  into  the  frame  of  the  brush:  (i)  by  drawing 
them  in  with  either  brass  wire  or  heavy  linen  thread, 

143 


144  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

(2)  by  stapling,  or  (3)  by  cementing.  The  first 
method  is  by  far  the  best.  Holes  are  drilled  into  the 
frame  or  block.  If  the  top  surface  is  to  be  veneered 
or  otherwise  covered,  it  is  a  comparatively  simple 
process.  A  loop  of  thread  or  wire  from  the  top  side 
is  drawn  through  the  hole.  A  bunch  of  bristles  folded 
in  the  center  is  placed  in  the  loop  and  the  wire  is  drawn 
back  again  to  the  top  side,  thus  pulling  the  bristles  into 
the  hole  and  holding  them  there  by  the  wire  or  thread. 
The  bristles  are  literally  sewed  into  the  frame  of  the 
brush.  If  the  frame  is  of  solid  wood  or  other  mate- 
rial, this  process  of  sewing  is  decidedly  difficult.  It 
can  be  easily  recognized  by  the  little  holes  at  the  end  of 
one  side  of  the  frame  which  are  plugged  up.  The 
best  grades  of  hair  brushes  are  made  by  this  process. 

See  Figure  8  in  manual  for  "  Leather  Goods  De- 
partment "  for  an  illustration  of  two  methods  of  in- 
serting bristles. 

Other  Processes 

Bristles  put  in  with  staples  or  with  cement  are  not 
so  permanent  as  those  that  are  sewed  in.  The  holes 
are  first  ground  in  the  same  way  as  for  the  first  pro- 
cess. The  folded  bunch  of  fibers  is  put  on  the  staple 
and  the  staple  is  driven  firmly  up  through  the  hole  into 
the  frame,  thus  drawing  the  fibers  into  the  hole.  This 
makes  a  fairly  good  brush. 


SHOE  SUPPLIES  145 

By  the  third  method  the  folded  bunch  of  fibers  is 
cemented  up  in  the  hole.  These  brushes  are  the  least 
satisfactory.  Hair  or  bristle  brushes  produce  a  high 
luster  upon  the  shoe.  A  dauber  of  the  same  kind  of 
fiber  is  attached  to  many  brushes. 

Daubers 

Daubers  are  small  round  brushes  made  either  of 
hair  or  bristles  or  some  soft  fur,  like  sheepskin.  They 
are  used  to  apply  the  paste  to  the  shoe.  Those  made 
of  hair  or  bristles  are  similar  both  in  material  and  con- 
struction to  shoe  brushes.  Sheepskin  daubers  make  a 
very  good,  cheap  brush. 

Felt  Brushes 

Felt  brushes  are  used  for  polishing,  and  are  very 
desirable  for  they  give  a  fine  polish  to  the  shoe. 

Shoe  Buttons 

Shoe  buttons  are  made  from  vegetable  ivory,  com- 
pressed paper,  pearl  shell,  and  agate.  Pearl  shell  and 
agate  are  now  being  used  upon  women's  and  children's 
shoes  as  they  are  decorative.  Vegetable  ivory  and 
compressed  paper  are  recognized  as  the  standard  ma- 
terial for  buttons,  commercially,  vegetable  ivory  being 
used  for  the  better  grades  and  compressed  paper  for 
the  cheaper  qualities.  They  look  quite  alike  when 
new,  but  with  wear  the  vegetable  ivory  shows  little 


146  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

change,  while  the  compressed  paper  becomes  shabby 
and  rough  and  breaks  apart.  If  one  wishes  to  dis- 
tinguish the  two,  the  following  tests  will  help. 

Cut  into  the  button.  If  it  is  very  hard  and  if  it 
grows  lighter  to  a  cream  white  the  further  it  is  cut 
into,  it  is  vegetable  ivory.  (See  chapters  on  buttons 
for  vegetable  ivory.)  If  the  color  remains  the  same 
throughout,  the  button  is  made  of  compressed  paper. 

Boil  the  buttons  in  water.  There  will  be  prac- 
tically no  change  if  they  are  vegetable  ivory  though 
if  the  dye  is  not  the  very  best  it  may  boil  away  a  little. 
If  the  button  is  compressed  paper,  it  will  gradually 
soften  and  disintegrate. 

Shoe  Horns 

The  types  of  shoe  horns  are: 

Steel,  nickel-plated,  or  japanned 

Celluloid 

Fancy 

Shoe  horns  are  used  to  facilitate  the  putting  on  of 
slippers  or  low  shoes.  Without  a  horn,  the  slipper  is 
apt  to  become  stretched  at  the  back. 

Horns  are  made  of  steel,  celluloid,  or  ivory.  The 
steel  horns  are  finished  either  in  nickel-plate  or  japan, 
the  latter  being  very  cheap.  They  vary  greatly  with 
respect  to  the  handles.  In  some  the  extension  of  the 
horn  forms  the  handle,  while  others  have  fancy  handles 


SHOE  SUPPLIES  147 

of  other  metals,  silver  and  gold,  plated  and  solid.  At 
present,  many  horns  are  made  of  celluloid  or  ivory.1 
Celluloid  shoe  horns  are  of  two  kinds :  the  heavy  sort 
and  the  cheaper  thin  kind.  The  former  are  molded 
in  dies  under  great  heat  and  pressure.  The  cheaper 
ones  are  stamped  out  of  a  sheet  of  celluloid  and  beaten 
into  shape  under  heat  and  pressure. 

Buttonhooks 

The  hook  proper  of  the  buttonhook  is  cast  steel, 
nickel-plated.  The  cheaper  ones  are  very  thinly  plated 
and  poorly  finished.  Many  of  the  finely  finished 
hooks  have  ornamental  handles  of  plated  or  solid 
silver,  celluloid,  or  wood. 

Shoe  and  Slipper  Trees 

Trees  are  used  to  hold  shoes  and  slippers  in  shape. 
There  are  two  types  of  trees:  those  used  for  slippers 
and  light  shoes,  and  those  used  for  heavier  shoes. 
The  slipper  trees  are  very  light  in  construction.  They 
are  made  of  two  pieces  of  hard  wood,  finished  either 
with  wax  or  varnish,  connected  by  a  thin,  flexible 
spring  steel.  The  wood  forming  the  heel  of  the  tree 
is  a  small  round  ball  and  that  of  the  toe,  pointed  and 
shaped  to  fit  the  slipper.  The  flexible  piece  of  spring 
steel  makes  them  adjustable  to  any  size  slipper  or  shoe. 

i  For  description   of  celluloid  see   Chapter   XVII,   "  Hair  Goods." 


148  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

They  answer  the  purpose  in  a  fair  way  for  the  light 
shoes  and  slippers,  but  if  a  good  fit  is  desired,  the 
regular  shoe  trees  are  preferable.  These  are  seldom 
sold  in  a  Notion  Department,  but  must  be  purchased 
in  the  Shoe  Department.  They  are  made  of  two  pieces 
of  hard  wood  finished  like  the  slipper  trees,  carefully 
formed  to  fit  the  shoe.  They  are  held  together  by  a 
screw  that  may  be  used  to  lengthen  or  shorten  the 
trees.  The  use  of  properly  fitted  trees  will  prolong 
the  life  of  a  pair  of  shoes. 

Types  of  Shoe  Dressings 

The  purpose  of  shoe  dressings  and  polishes  is  four- 
fold :  cleaning  the  shoe,  preserving  the  leather,  restoring 
the  leather  as  much  as  possible  to  its  original  color,  and 
polishing.  These  requirements  and  the  variety  of 
shoes,  both  in  materials  and  colors,  have  necessitated 
the  manufacture  of  many  kinds  of  shoe  dressings. 
They  can,  however,  be  classified  under  four  general 
heads,  according  to  the  chief  object  to  be  secured,  as : 

Cleaning  preparations 
Polishing  preparations 
Coloring  and  dying  preparations 
Enameling  preparations 

Two  or  more  of  these  properties  may  be  combined 
in  the  same  preparation.  For  example,  a  preparation 


SHOE  SUPPLIES  149 

is  made  which  cleans,  rewhitens,  and  polishes  white 
glazed  kid  all  in  one  operation.  Another  preparation 
cleans  the  tarnish  from  silver  slippers  and  at  the  same 
time  resilvers  the  worn  spots. 

Shoe  dressings  may  be  classified  according  to  the 
form  in  which  they  are  put  up  under  five  general 
headings : 

Cakes  Liquids 

Pastes  Powders 

Creams 

Cleaning  Preparations 

Castile  or  ivory  soap  and  water  makes  a  satisfactory 
cleaner  when  shoes  are  not  too  soiled,  stained,  or 
faded. 

A  yellow  liquid  cleaner  is  used  to  a  large  extent  for 
brown  and  tan  shoes.  It  is  made  chiefly  of  oxalic 
acid,  yellow  dyes,  water,  and  gum  tragacanth,  varying 
somewhat  according  to  different  manufacturers. 

Cleaners  for  white  canvas  shoes  are  made  in  liquid, 
cake,  and  powder  form,  the  last  two,  however,  should 
be  called  "whiteners,"  as  they  have  only  a  slight  clean- 
ing value.  The  cake  form  should  not  be  packed  in  a 
tin  receiver  unless  the  receiver  is  enameled  on  the 
inside.  Otherwise  when  the  cake  is  moistened  the 
tin  may  rust  and  shoes  be  spotted  with  red. 

Many  white  liquid  cleaners  are  made  with  chalk, 


150  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

or  some  whitening  material,  and  water.  Such  a  liquid 
has  but  slight  cleaning  value,  acting  chiefly  as  a 
whitener  to  cover  the  soiled  spots.  A  liquid  cleaner 
made  from  a  cleaning  compound  like  gasoline  in  which 
is  ground  white  powder,  will  be  found  much  more 
thorough.  Care  should  be  taken  to  understand  the 
directions  of  the  manufacturer  thoroughly,  for  with 
careless  use  rings  may  be  formed  on  the  fabric. 

White  kid  cleaners  are  made  in  liquid  form,  and 
polish  the  leather  to  restore  the  original  surface  as 
well  as  clean  and  whiten.  Cleaners  that  contain  tur- 
pentine or  gasoline  should  not  be  used  on  white  kid, 
as  these  will  turn  the  leather  yellow. 

For  silver  slippers  the  only  proper  cleaner  is  a  prep- 
aration which  removes  the  tarnish  and  at  the  same  time 
refmishes  worn  spots.  Avoid  the  use  of  any  prepara- 
tion which  coats  or  paints  over  the  silver  cloth. 

Polishing  Preparations 

The  chief  essential  of  any  polish  is  that  it  should 
restore  the  natural  luster  and  life  to  a  shoe.  It  is  of 
almost  equal  importance  that  it  should  preserve  the 
leather.  Polishes  that  contain  acids,  turpentine,  or 
gasoline  will  make  the  leather  brittle  and  inelastic. 

Paste  Polishes 

In  all  paste  polishes,  friction  is  necessary  to  obtain 


SHOE  SUPPLIES  151 

a  luster.  There  are  two  kinds :  those  that  polish  only 
and  those  that  both  polish  and  color  the  shoe.  The 
latter  contain  dye  or  coloring  matter.  According  to 
ingredients  there  are  two  types  of  polishes :  water  and 
turpentine. 

The  principal  ingredients  of  water  pastes  are  castile 
soap,  wax,  dye,  and  water;  of  the  turpentine  pastes, 
wax,  dye,  and  turpentine.  A  turpentine  paste  can  be 
distinguished  from  a  water  paste  by  its  odor  or  by 
touching  it  with  a  lighted  match.  Turpentine  paste 
will  burn,  but  water  paste  will  not.  If  a  paste  dries 
out  it  can  be  moistened,  a  water  paste  with  water  and 
a  turpentine  paste  with  turpentine.  All  paste  polishes 
act  as  cleaners  to  a  limited  extent,  but  it  is  wiser  to 
have  the  shoe  cleaned  before  applying  the  paste. 

In  branded  goods  the  quality  of  the  paste  is  the 
same  in  both  the  large  and  smaller  sized  containers, 
but  when  not  branded  the  smaller,  cheaper  qualities 
are  often  of  lower  grade. 

Liquid  Polishes 

Liquid  polishes  are  of  two  kinds :  the  liquid  friction, 
which  require  rubbing,  and  the  self -shining  dressings 
which  do  not.  The  latter  are  largely  used  by  women 
and  children.  Some  of  the  best  for  black  shoes  are 
made  of  a  combination  of  alcohol,  shellac,  dyes,  and 
water. 


152  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Coloring  and  Dyeing  Preparations 

Leather  dyes  are  used  to  change  the  color  of  a  shoe 
or  renew  a  faded  color.  Many  of  these  are  very 
objectionable  because  of  the  pungent,  penetrating  odor 
which  does  not  leave  the  shoe  for  many  days  after 
the  dyeing.  Dyes  may  be  had,  however,  in  black, 
brown,  gray,  bronze,  etc.,  which  leave  little  odor  and 
will  dye  shoes  beautiful  even  shades.  Faded  light- 
colored  shoes  may  often  be  saved  for  much  wear  by 
dyeing  them  a  darker  color. 

Enameling  Preparations 

Enamels  are  made  for  finishing  the  heels  and  soles 
of  shoes.  They  were  originally  made  in  white  only, 
but  are  now  made  in  all  colors  that  shoes  are  made 
in.  A  good  enamel  will  dry  to  a  very  hard  surface 
and  will  not  chip  or  peel  off. 


Part  IV — Buttons 


INTRODUCTORY  TO  PART  IV 

Buttons  are  both  necessities  and  accessories — they 
may  be  used  merely  for  fastening  purposes  or  as  orna- 
ments. A  beautiful  gown  may  become  commonplace 
if  trimmed  with  cheap  buttons  instead  of  high-grade 
ones  in  keeping  with  the  material  of  which  the  gown 
is  made,  while  children's  play  clothes  should  not  bear 
fancy  trimming  buttons  which  will  not  withstand  the 
constant  laundering  which  such  clothes  require. 

Therefore  to  choose  the  proper  button  requires  on 
the  part  of  both  saleswoman  and  customer  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  various  materials  of  which  buttons  are 
made  as  well  as  of  the  processes  of  manufacture. 


Chapter  XIX 

TYPES  OF  BUTTONS 

Material 

The  raw  material  for  buttons  comes  from  many 
sources — from  the  depths  of  the  sea,  from  the  bowels 
of  the  earth,  and  now,  in  ever-increasing  numbers, 
from  the  products  of  creative  chemistry.  A  great 
manufacturer  of  Birmingham,  the  seat  of  the  button 
industries  in  England,  when  asked  concerning  the  raw 
materials  from  which  buttons  were  made,  replied  that 
it  would  be  easy  to  write  a  long  list  of  materials  from 
which  buttons  had  been  made,  but  very  difficult  to 
name  one  material  from  which  buttons  had  not  been 
made. 

Following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important  buttons, 
classified  as  to  raw  material : 

Pearl — salt,  or  ocean,  Hard  rubber 

and  fresh,  or  sweet  Horn 

water  Bone 

Vegetable  ivory  Galilith 

Composition  Glass 

i55 


156  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Agate  Bachelor  buttons 

Vulcanized  fiber  Wire  and  thread 

Metal  Crocheted 

Cloth-covered  3~ply  linen 

Celluloid  Wood 

Methods  of  Attaching 

Buttons  are  also  classified  according  to  the  method 
of  attaching  them.  Some  are  sewed  into  the  garment 
through  holes  in  the  button,  and  others  are  attached 
by  some  kind  of  a  shank,  which  may  be  made  either 
of  the  same  material  as  the  button  with  a  hole  bored 
through  the  shank,  as  in  vegetable  and  pearl  buttons, 
or  of  wire  bent  into  a  loop,  or  of  cloth,  as  in  many 
metal  buttons. 

The  chapters  which  follow  treat  of  standard  buttons 
rather  than  the  fancy,  since  they  are  in  the  majority 
and  the  information  is  thus  more  practical. 

History  of  Buttons 

Buttons  are  a  comparatively  modern  invention,  as 
in  the  earlier  periods  clothes  did  not  fit,  but  were 
loose  robes  held  in  place  by  pins  and  girdles.  The 
earliest  forms  of  buttons  were  knobs  of  wood  or 
metal.  The  derivation  of  the  word  "button,"  from 
the  French  bouton,  meaning  any  round  thing,  a  pro- 
jection, something  sticking  out,  indicates  that  buttons 
were  first  used  to  fasten  garments  together. 


TYPES  OF  BUTTONS  157 

But  it  was  not  long  until  buttons  became  almost 
equally  important  as  ornaments.  In  a  poem  written 
not  later  than  1300  we  find  mention  of  buttons.  There 
the  hero  is  described  as  wearing  buttons  from  elbow 
to  hand.  During  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  of  France, 
the  craze  of  buttons  became  a  positive  mania.  Louis, 
so  it  is  said,  spent  in  one  year,  1685,  over  $600,000 
for  buttons.  He  bought  two  diamond  buttons  for 
$14,000,  seventy-five  diamond  buttons  for  $120,000, 
and  paid  over  $100,000  for  the  buttons  on  a  single 
vest.  Never  since  that  day  have  buttons  been  so 
elaborate  and  expensive ;  but  the  variety  and  the  artistic 
value  has  been  unlimited  by  raw  material  and  genius. 
In  the  state  capitol  at  Hartford,  Connecticut,  is  a 
collection  of  34  strings  of  buttons,  each  containing 
2,700  different  styles  of  buttons. 

Button-making  in  this  country  started  before  the 
Revolution  and  buttons  have  been  made  of  brass  and 
wood  here  since  1750,  of  horn  since  1812,  of  imported 
ocean  pearl  since  1855,  and  of  composition  since  1862. 


Chapter  XX 

PEARL  BUTTONS 

Kinds  of  Pearl  Buttons 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pearl  buttons: 
Fresh  water,  or  mussel  pearl  buttons. 
Ocean,  or  salt  water  pearl  buttons. 

Fresh  Water  Pearl  Buttons  —  Source  of  Raw  Materia 
Everyone  who  has  visited  the  streams  and  lakes  o 
the  Middle  West  doubtless  has  seen  the  flat  bivalve^ 
mussel  clams.     They  can  often  be  seen  in  clear  water 
lying  on  their  hinges  with  their  valves  wide  open  so 
that  the  food-laden  water  passes  through,  or  they  are 
found  lying  tightly  closed  high  and  dry  on  the  shore. 
Few   are  the   streams   along  the  Mississippi   and   its 
tributaries  that  have  not  a  good  quantity  of  mussels. 
There  are  over   500  varieties,  but  out  of  this  large 
number  only  about  40  are  suitable  for  button-making 
and  only  17  are  at  present  of  commercial  importance. 
An  ideal  button  shell  should  have  the  following  quali- 
ties: "the  nacre  pearly  white  or  preferably  iridescent; 
free  from  spots,  stains  or  coloring;  the  inner  surface 

158 


PEARL  BUTTONS  159 

smooth;  the  outer  surface  free  from  ridges  or  pro- 
tuberances; the  thickness  uniform;  the  shape  flattish, 
oval;  the  size  sufficient  for  the  cutting  of  several 
blanks."  l 

Methods  of  Fishing 

Mussel-fishing  is  an  irregular  occupation,  as  it  must 
be  abandoned  during  the  long  winters  in  the  North, 
and  it  cannot  be  carried  on  on  windy  stormy  days. 
The  methods  of  fishing  vary,  being  more  or  less  adapted 
to  the  peculiarities  of  the  locality  and  the  ingenuity 
of  the  fisherman.  About  an  equal  amount  of  money 
is  made  from  the  pearls  found,  as  from  the  shells  sold. 

The  types  of  apparatus  most  generally  used  are :  the 
crowfoot  bar,  the  dip  net,  the  basket  rake,  the  fork, 
and  the  dredge. 

The  crowfoot  bar  is  the  tool  most  commonly  found 
on  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries.  It  is  a  bar  of 
iron  about  the  length  of  the  flat-bottom  rowboat  from 
which  it  is  used.  From  this  bar  hang  many  lines,  to 
each  of  which  are  attached  a  number  of  three  or  four 
prong  hooks.  It  is  designed  to  take  advantage  of 
the  mussel's  lazy  habit  of  lying  on  the  bottom 
of  the  stream  with  its  shells  wide  open  until  its  deli- 
cately sensitive  flesh  is  touched  by  some  foreign  matter, 
when  it  closes  its  shells  almost  instantaneously.  When 

1  Bulletin  of  Bureau  of  Fisheries,  Vol.  36. 


160  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

the  bar  with  its  many  lines  is  lowered  close  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  river  and  the  hooks  are  dragged  along, 
many  clams  close  their  shells  around  the  prongs.  The 
bar  is  then  raised  and  another  one  is  lowered,  while 
the  clams  are  removed  from  the  first  bar,  making  it 
ready  for  use  again.  This  method  has  certain  advan- 
tages: it  is  inexpensive,  demands  little  skill  to  operate, 
and  can  be  used  in  deep  as  well  as  shallow  water.  But 
on  the  other  hand  it  is  very  wasteful  of  clams.  Many 
immature  clams  are  injured  in  the  water,  so  that  they 
die.  Many  are  caught  too  small  to  use  and  even  when 
these  are  returned  to  the  water,  a  large  percentage  die. 
As  the  mussel  beds  become  more  and  more  depleted 
this  wasteful  mode  of  fishing  will  not  be  tolerated. 

The  dip  net  is  used  in  deep  water  where  there  is 
little  current  and  a  muddy  bottom.  The  net,  which 
has  a  capacity  of  two  or  more  bushels  of  shells,  is 
fastened  to  a  heavy  hoop,  one  side  of  which  is  flat. 
The  net  is  drawn  along  by  a  rope  fastened  to  the  boat 
and  operated  by  a  long  stick  that  is  fastened  to  the 
iron  hoop. 

The  shoulder  rake  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  com- 
paratively swift  water,  especially  when  the  bottom  is 
muddy  and  free  from  snags  and  rocks.  The  imple- 
ment consists  of  a  metal  rake  about  a  foot  long  with 
10  or  12  coarse  curved  teeth,  each  about  9  inches  in 
length.  The  rake  is  securely  fastened  to  a  wooden 


PEARL  BUTTONS  l6l 

handle,  the  length  of  which  depends  upon  the  depth 
of  the  water.  A  basket  made  of  poultry  wire  netting 
is  attached  to  the  rake  and  affords  a  receptacle  for 
holding  the  shells  as  they  are  collected. 

Shell  tongs  are  used  in  rather  deep  water.  This 
implement  is  essentially  a  grapple,  consisting  of  two 
forks  on  the  ends  of  long  handles,  which  are  pivoted 
together  after  the  fashion  of  a  pair  of  scissors.  The 
tongs  are  especially  adapted  for  use  in  the  spaces  be- 
tween logs  and  other  obstructions. 

The  dredge  is  operated  between  two  boats  lashed 
securely  at  such  a  distance  that  it  can  be  dropped 
between  them.  The  dredge  is  made  of  two  heavy, 
long-toothed  rakes  with  iron  handles,  so  pivoted  to- 
gether shear- fashion  that  the  two  rakes  when  closed 
form  an  oblong  basket.  The  dredge  is  dropped  to  the 
bottom  of  the  stream  and  with  the  closing  together 
of  the  two  rakes  of  the  dredge  all  the  mussels  are 
gathered  into  the  oblong  box  and  raised  to  the  boats, 
except  those  so  small  that  they  drop  through  the  tines. 
It  makes  a  clean  catch  over  a  given  area,  and  is  not 
destructive  to  very  young  clams. 

Cleaning  and  Sorting  of  Shells 

After  the  mussels  are  brought  to  shore  they  are 
usually  put  in  a  cooker,  that  is,  a  large  vat  through 
which  steam  and  hot  air  pass,  killing  the  clams.  The 


162  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

shells  are  removed  with  great  forks  from  the  cooker 
and  thrown  onto  the  sorting  table.  Here  the  meat  is 
carefully  examined  for  pearls,  and  then  removed. 
Sometimes  the  shells  are  sorted  into  different  grades 
and  sizes,  thereby  making  it  possible  to  sell  them  en, 
a  higher  market  than  the  "river  run." 

History  of  the  Fresh  Water  Pearl  Button  Industry 
Although  button-making  started  in  this  country  be 
fore  the  Revolution,  and  although  mussels  were  gath 
ered  for  pearls  as  early  as  1857,  it  was  as  late  as  189* 
before  the  manufacture  of  fresh  water  pearl  button 
began. 

In  1871  a  man  from  Peoria,  111.,  conceived  the  idei 
that  the  pearly  shell  of  the  Illinois  River  ought  to  havt 
some  commercial  importance  and  he  accordingly  sent 
a  small  box  of  the  shells  to  Germany.  For  years  they 
lay  unnoticed,  but  in  the  early  8o's  a  workman  carried 
into  a  shop  in  Ottensen,  Germany,  this  box  of  shells 
which  he  told  J.  F.  Boepple,  a  button-turner,  were  sent 
to  his  father  years  before  from  a  river  "somewhere 
about  200  miles  southeast  of  Chicago."  In  1887 
Boepple  came  to  America  with  his  button  lathe  in 
search  of  the  shells. 

Four  years  of  hard  work,  disappointment,  and  per- 
sistent determination  were  rewarded  by  final  success, 
and  in  1891  he  with  two  friends  established  in  Musca- 


PEARL  BUTTONS  163 

tine,  Iowa,  the  first  fresh  water  pearl  button  factory. 
It  has  now  grown  to  such  a  size  that  it  uses  $4,000,000 
worth  of  mussel  shells  in  a  year,  or  one- fourth  of  the 
value  of  the  raw  materials  used  in  all  the  factories 
producing  buttons  in  the  United  States. 

So  quietly  did  this  industry  come  that  few  people 
realized  its  development  and  so  rapidly  did  it  grow 
that  the  mussel  beds  almost  faced  extinction  before 
the  manufacturers  were  aware  of  the  danger.  In  1905 
they  appealed  to  the  Bureau  of  Fisheries  of  the  United 
States  government  for  help.  The  Bureau  responded 
with  a  program  of  artificial  aid  to  propagation. 

The  mussel  egg  floats  a  while  on  the  surface  of 
the  water  and  then  drops  to  the  bottom  of  the  river, 
where  it  will  die  unless  it  can  attach  itself  to  a  fish  to 
which  it  will  cling  for  30  to  60  days,  until  it  is  large 
enough  to  be  a  self-supporting  independent  clam.  One 
medium-sized  fish  can  carry  as  many  as  500  to  1,000 
clams.  The  Bureau  therefore  loaded  the  fish  from 
the  government  hatcheries  destined  for  the  clam-bear- 
ing regions  with  little  clams. 

Other  efforts  less  spectacular  have  also  been  of 
great  value.  The  Bureau  advocated  less  wasteful 
methods  of  fishing  and  the  zoning  of  mussel-bearing 
regions,  giving  one  area  a  rest  for  a  few  years,  then 
another,  thus  allowing  the  clams  to  mature  and  repro- 
duce before  they  were  caught. 


164  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

The  fishing  for  mussels  is  pursued  more  or  less 
actively  in  the  following  19  states:  South  Dakota, 
Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Arkansas,  Okla- 
homa, Louisiana,  Texas,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  Ohio,  Kentucky,  West  Virginia,  Tennessee, 
Mississippi,  and  Alabama.  At  least  6  other  states — 
New  York,  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  Connecticut — are  interested  in  the 
mussel  fisheries  because  many  of  their  large  factories 
use  the  mussel  shell,  so  that  over  one-half  of  the  states 
of  the  union  are  directly  concerned  with  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  mussel  resources. 

Manufacture  of  Fresh  Water  Pearl  Buttons 
See  under  salt  water  pearl  buttons. 

Salt  Water  or  Ocean  Pearl  Buttons  —  Sources  of  Raw 
Material 

The  salt  water  pearl  button  is  largely  cut  from 
oyster  shells  that  are  found  in  many  parts  of  the 
ocean — among  the  South  Sea  Islands,  in  the  Red  Sea 
and  Persian  Gulf,  in  the  waters  around  Australia  and 
the  Philippine  Islands.  Most  of  the  white  buttons 
come  from  Sidney  and  West  Australia.  The  so-called 
smoke  or  shaded  shells  are  found  at  and  around  the 
Island  of  Tahiti  in  the  South  Sea.  A  button  known 
as  Japanese  by  the  trade  is  made  from  a  snail  shell 
which  is  known  as  Trocha;  the  buttons  have  the 


PEARL  BUTTONS  165 

appearance  of  a  cat's  eye.  They  are  somewhat  creamy 
in  color  and  are  not  so  hard  and  durable  as  those  made 
of  the  mother-of-pearl  from  the  oyster  shells. 

Method  of  Fishing 

As  to  the  method  of  gathering  the  pearl  shells, 
the  following  are  the  most  common : 

The  first  and  most  primitive  way  which  is  still  used 
in  a  great  many  parts  of  the  world,  such  as  the  Red  Sea, 
Persian  Gulf,  and  many  places  in  the  South  Seas,  is  by 
naked  plunging.  The  native  diver  stuffs  his  ears  and 
nose  with  cotton  wadding,  grasps  a  heavy  stone,  and 
plunges  into  the  water.  Upon  reaching  the  bottom  he 
drops  the  stone  and  picks  up  such  shells  as  are  in  sight, 
perhaps  three  or  four,  and  returns  to  the  surface  of  the 
ocean.  A  good  diver  cannot  stay  under  water  longer 
than  about  a  minute.  This  limits  the  depth  of  diving 
to  about  40  or  50  feet. 

Another  method  of  procuring  shells  is  by  the  use  of 
the  regulation  diving  apparatus,  which  enables  the  diver 
to  go  to  the  depth  of  about  180  feet.  Naturally  by  this 
method  a  larger  quantity  of  shells  can  be  procured,  and 
the  diver  has  time  to  collect  shells  that  would  be  abso- 
lutely inaccessible  to  the  native  diver.  This  method  is 
very  expensive.  Each  boat's  crew  consists  of  six  men ; 
a  sailing  master,  two  men  at  the  pump  (who  supply  air 
to  the  submerged  diver),  one  man  at  the  line,  who  pulls 


166  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

the  diver  up  on  signal,  a  cook,  and  the  diver — six  men, 
but  only  one  producer.  This  method  has  also  the  dis- 
advantage of  being  very  detrimental  to  the  fishing 
banks.  The  diver,  being  able  to  remain  down  for  so 
much  longer  time  than  the  native  diver,  gathers  a  much 
larger  portion  of  the  shells.  As  a  consequence  the 
Australian  fisheries,  which  have  been  worked  by  divers 
with  regulation  diving  apparatus  for  the  past  40  or  50 
years,  are  rapidly  being  depleted,  while  the  banks  of  the 
Red  Sea,  which  have  been  worked  only  by  native  divers, 
are  as  productive  today  as  they  were  in  the  time  of 
King  Solomon. 

Beach-combing  is  done  in  some  parts  of  the  world. 
When  the  tide  is  low,  shells  can  be  collected  by  hand  in 
large  quantities.  This  method  can  be  used  only  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  and  then  for  only  a  short 
time  when  the  tide  is  low. 

The  dredging  method,  similar  to  that  used  in  the 
fresh  water  industry,  can  be  used  in  localities  where  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean  is  sandy  or  muddy  and  is  not 
deeper  than  20  to  30  feet. 

Method  of  Manufacture  of  Pearl  Buttons 

The  method  of  manufacture  of  fresh  water  and  salt 
water  pearl  buttons  is  much  alike,  although  in  certain 
details  they  differ.  Before  any  of  the  shells  come  to 
the  factories,  they  are  sorted  and  made  free  of  all  meat. 


PEARL  BUTTONS  167 

Following  are  the  most  important  of  the  processes  that 
take  place  in  the  factory. 

All  shells  are  soaked  for  a  number  of  days  in  tubs 
of  water  so  as  to  put  them  in  the  best  condition  for 
cutting,  drilling,  and  carving.  If  they  are  in  a  dry 
state  there  is  far  greater  danger  of  their  chipping  and 
breaking. 

From  the  tubs  they  are  taken  to  machines  where 
tubular  saws  cut  from  the  shells  round  disks  called 
"blanks."  These  are  of  the  size  desired  for  the  button. 

These  blanks  are  of  varying  thicknesses  with  rough 
and  uneven  surfaces.  The  next  processes  are  facing 
and  backing,  that  is,  making  smooth  the  inside  surface 
and  removing  the  rough  bark  from  the  outside.  Blanks 
are  classified  as  to  thickness  as  well  as  to  size.  Very 
thick  blanks  are  used  to  make  shank  buttons  and  the 
thinner  ones  for  the  flat  buttons. 

If  the  button  is  to  be  carved,  this  is  usually  done  at 
this  stage  by  hand,  so  called  because  the  machine  is 
operated  by  hand  and  not  automatically.  Fresh  water 
pearl  buttons  can  be  but  slightly  carved  because  the 
shells  are  so  soft,  but  the  salt  water  pearl  can  be  very 
intricately  and  wonderfully  carved. 

If  the  button  is  not  to  be  carved,  the  blanks  are  put 
into  a  wonderful  machine  that  can  be  set  to  take  the 
blank  automatically,  cut  the  shape  of  the  button  de- 
sired, pass  it  to  another  part  of  the  machine,  and  there 


168  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

drill  in  the  holes.  If  the  button  is  carved,  the  holes  are 
drilled  in  by  a  machine  especially  designed  for  that 
purpose. 

Next  the  button  must  be  cleaned  and  polished.  This 
is  done  by  churning  the  buttons  in  a  liquid  mixture  in 
what  looks  like  an  old-fashioned  barrel  churn.  In  the 
case  of  salt  water  pearl  buttons,  they  are  further 
polished  by  being  rubbed  on  a  rag  wheel. 

Sorting,  carding,  and  packing  are  the  finishing 
processes. 

Distinguishing  Salt  Water  and  Fresh  Water  Pearl 
Buttons 

Salt  water  buttons  have  a  clear  translucent  hard  ap- 
pearance and  can  be  delicately  carved.  Fresh  water 
pearl  buttons  are  of  a  chalky  white  and  are  seldom 
carved  and  then  but  little.  The  price  of  salt  water  pearl 
buttons  varies  from  three  to  five  times  as  high  as  fresh 
water  buttons.  In  buying  ready-to-wear  garments  it 
is  often  helpful  to  be  able  to  distinguish  one  from  the 
other,  because  a  very  poor  garment  will  never  have  on 
it  a  high-grade  carved  salt  water  pearl  button  and  the 
reverse  is  equally  true. 

Grading  of  Pearl  Buttons 

All  pearl  buttons  are  graded  largely  by  two  factors : 
thickness  and  color.  The  firsts  are  a  uniformly  medium 


PEARL  BUTTONS  169 

thick  button.     In  the  poorest  grades  the  buttons  will 
be  very  thin  and  varying  in  thickness. 

Color  is  also  very  important.  The  natural  white  or 
ocean  pearl  button  is  pure  white  preferably,  with 
iridescent  coloring.  The  Japanese  pearl  button  is 
creamy  in  color.  It  is  considered  far  inferior  to  the 
real  ocean  pearl.  The  smoked  pearl  buttons  are  not 
standard  as  to  shade  as  they  vary  in  tone  from  gray 
to  black.  Many  manufacturers  of  salt  water  pearl 
buttons  mark  the  cards  as  following  to  indicate  grade : 
superfine,  fine,  %  fine>  V^.  fine,  etc.  The  color  of  the 
card  may  indicate  the  quality.  The  finest  fresh  water 
pearl  buttons  are  like  the  salt  water  ones,  white  with 
iridescent  colorings,  then  white.  When  there  is  a  nat- 
ural tint  of  pink,  blue,  red,  or  yellow  in  the  buttons 
they  are  always  dyed.  Many  of  these  buttons  are  very 
lovely  in  color,  but  the  comparatively  small  number  of 
each  shade  of  a  color  makes  the  grading  and  sale 
impractical. 


Chapter  XXI 

VEGETABLE  IVORY  BUTTONS 

Source  of  Raw  Material 

One  would  be  safe  to  wager  that  at  least  nine  out  of 
every  ten  people  if  shown  a  vegetable  ivory  button 
would  call  it  horn  or  bone  or  composition,  but  not 
vegetable  ivory.  Along  the  west  coast  of  South  America, 
from  southern  Panama  through  Colombia  and  Ecuador 
grows  a  stunted  palm  tree  some  10  to  30  feet  high 
called  by  botanists  Phytelephas  Macrocarpa,  but  by  the 
natives  tagua.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree  with  large  gorgeous 
feather-like  leaves.  It  bears  nuts  from  which  buttons 
are  made.  Eight  to  thirty  of  these  nuts  grow  bound 
together  in  a  head  covered  with  a  heavy  burr  suggestive 
of  our  common  horse  chestnut.  In  the  immature  state 
the  insides  of  the  nuts  are  similar  to  the  milk  in  a 
cocoanut,  but  when  the  nuts  ripen,  the  inside  becomes 
harder,  the  burr  breaks  open,  and  the  nuts  fall  to  the 
ground.  These  are  gathered  by  natives  and  carried  on 
mule  back  or  by  rafts  to  some  seaport  town  where  they 
are  shipped. 

170 


VEGETABLE  IVORY  BUTTONS  171 

One  authority  gave  this  very  interesting  comparison 
of  the  value  of  the  nuts.  The  natives  receive  from 
$i  to  $1.50  per  hundred  weight,  the  manufacturers  pay 
$6  upward.  In  the  cost  of  producing  a  vegetable  ivory 
button,  the  raw  material  cost  only  15  to  25  per  cent  of 
total — 75  to  85  per  cent  being  expended  for  labor. 

Method  of  Manufacture 

Shelling.  Each  nut  is  composed  of  an  outside  shell 
enclosing  a  white  meat.  In  the  immature  nuts  the  shell 
and  the  meat  cling  very  closely  together.  Dry  heat 
hardens  the  white  meat  and  causes  it  to  shrink  away 
from  the  shell,  which  is  very  hard,  in  fact,  so  hard  that 
steel  will  not  cut  it.  However  it  can  be  broken  by  blow$ 
In  the  factory,  the  first  operation  is  to  dry  the  nuts, 
Then  they  are  put  into  great  revolving  drums  with 
heavy  iron  projections  on  the  inside.  As  they  turn  the 
nuts  tumble  against  these  projections  and  the  shells  are 
cracked  and  shelled  off. 

Cutting  Slabs.  The  next  step  in  the  process  of  manu- 
facture is  to  slice  off  pieces  around  the  outside  of  the 
nut.  This  leaves  a  core  or  pithy  part,  for  which  no  use 
has  yet  been  found.  The  cutting  of  these  slabs  requires 
great  skill.  It  is  done  with  a  saw  running  at  6,000  to 
7,000  revolutions  per  minute.  These  pieces  are  cured 
or  hardened  preparatory  to  turning  out  the  buttons. 

Turning.    The  machine  used  is  a  turning  lathe  with 


172  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

front  and  back  revolving  spindles.  Great  skill  is  also 
needed  to  operate  this  machine. 

Making  the  Holes  and  Reaming  and  Other  Forms  of 
Attachment.  In  high-grade  vegetable  ivory  buttons 
each  hole  is  drilled  in  separately  by  an  automatic  drill, 
so  that  the  hole  is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the 
button.  On  the  upper  part  of  the  drill  is  a  sloping  part 
upon  which  very  sharp  drill  teeth  are  cut,  so  when  this 
part  of  the  drill  touches  the  button,  it  cuts  a  beveled  edge 
around  the  hole;  in  other  words  the  hole  is  reamed. 
All  this  great  care  in  cutting  the  holes  in  a  button  is 
for  just  the  one  reason,  that  the  edge  of  the  hole  does 
not  cut  the  thread.  When  buying  buttons  observe  these 
two  things,  if  you  wish  your  buttons  to  stay  sewed  onto 
your  garment — first,  that  the  holes  are  at  right  angles 
to  the  surface  of  the  buttons,  and  second,  that  there  is 
a  uniformly  wide  beveled  edge  around  each  hole. 

Figure  17  shows  the  steps  in  manufacturing  these 
buttons. 

There  are  ways  of  fastening  the  button  to  a  garment 
other  than  by  holes.  They  may  have  a  self -shank,  that 
is,  a  small  lump  may  be  left  on  the  back  of  the  button 
through  which  one  or  more  holes  are  drilled  parallel  to 
the  surface  of  the  button.  They  may  have  a  wire 
shank  or  "patent"  shank.  In  the  former  a  wire  eyelet 
is  secured  in  the  back  of  the  button  and  in  the  latter  a 
small  metal  post  with  one  or  more  holes  drilled  through 


r         fc^ 

mil 


o 

I 


VEGETABLE  IVORY  BUTTONS  173 

is  riveted  to  the  back  of  the  button.  Some  buttons  are 
niche  or  channel  drilled,  that  is  a  small  channel  con- 
nects each  two  holes  across  the  face  of  the  button.  The 
thread  lies  in  this  and  is  kept  below  the  surface  of  the 
button. 

Dyeing  and  Finishing.  Before  dyeing,  the  buttons 
must  be  made  very  smooth  by  being  tumbled  in  a  large 
drum  with  some  polishing  material.  The  buttons  may 
be  dyed  a  solid  plain  color,  or  they  may  be  mottled  or 
dyed  in  two  or  more  colors.  The  methods  used  vary 
but  little  from  those  used  on  cloth.  The  finishes  are 
numerous.  The  following  is  a  list  given  in  a  "Diction- 
ary of  Button  Terms"  by  the  "Art  in  Buttons"  people 
of  Rochester: 

Polish  finish:     glossy  or  lustrous  finish  over  the 

entire  surface. 

Sandblast  finish:     the  button  is  first  polished  and 
then  part  of  the  surface  dulled  by  a  sandblasting 
process. 
Satin  finish:     entire  surface  finished  in  the  dull 

effect. 

Pressed  finish:  grill,  mottle,  or  various  minute  in- 
tricate line  effects  pressed  with  hard  steel  en- 
graving dies  over  all  or  part  of  the  surface  of  a 
previously  polished,  satin  finished,  or  sandblasted 
button. 
Glass  edge:  an  especially  high  polish  obtained  by 


174  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

a  special  process  of  burnishing.    Name  applied  to 

any  polish  obtained  by  this  method,  even  though 

polish  may  be  in  the  center  and  not  on  the  edge 

at  all. 

Embossed:    heavy  raised  design  pressed  on  surface. 
Intaglio:     deeply  indented  design  pressed  or  cut 

onto  surface. 
Filled-name:    process  of  filling  with  white,  colored, 

or  gold  paste  any  intaglio  impression. 
Carved:     design  cut  into  the  surface  by  hand  or 

delicate  machine  process. 

Sizes  of  Buttons 

A  ligne  or  line  is  the  standard  used  in  measuring  the 
diameter  of  buttons.  There  are  40  lines  to  an  inch. 
The  larger  the  vegetable  ivory  button,  proportionally 
the  higher  the  price.  Why?  In  cutting  the  nuts  into 
slabs,  the  aim  is  to  cut  as  large  a  piece  as  possible 
each  time.  The  slabs  large  enough  for  a  5<>line  button 
are  very  few.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  not  more  than  one 
5O-line  piece  is  obtained  out  of  thirty  nuts. 

How  to  Distinguish  a  Vegetable  Ivory  Button 

The  surest  proof  that  a  button  is  vegetable  ivory  is 
to  cut  through  the  surface  with  a  sharp  instrument. 
If  as  you  go  deeper  the  dye  becomes  lighter  until  you 
come  to  the  natural  creamy  white,  you  may  be  sure  the 


VEGETABLE  IVORY  BUTTONS      175 

button  is  vegetable  ivory.  If  on  the  other  hand  the 
color  is  uniform,  the  material  is  either  composition, 
horn,  or  rubber.  If  the  holes  are  clean  cut,  not  pressed, 
you  may  be  quite  sure  it  is  vegetable  ivory. 

History  of  the  Vegetable  Ivory  Button 

The  story  is  that  the  vegetable  ivory  nuts  were 
brought  from  South  America  as  ballasts  in  the  return- 
ing empty  ships.  They  were  dumped  on  the  wharves  at 
Bremen  and  Hamburg,  where  they  were  allowed  to  rot 
unless  someone  carried  them  away  for  fuel.  Again  we 
quote  from  "Art  in  Buttons" : 

"During  the  year  1859  or  1860  some  of  the  nuts 
reached  Hainspack,  Austria,  a  mountain  village  famed 
for  the  hand  carving  of  its  inhabitants. 

"Johann  Hille  received  some  and  carved  them  into 
buttons,  the  surface  of  which  he  and  other  workman 
laboriously  colored  by  hand.  When  the  spring  came, 
Hille  took  his  new  creations  to  Vienna,  where  he  found 
a  ready  market  for  his  product.  The  next  fall  he  con- 
tracted for  several  bags  of  ivory  nuts  and  began  the 
manufacture  of  vegetable  ivory  buttons  on  a  larger 
scale.  During  the  year  1860  Herman  Donath,  who 
had  experimented  in  the  manufacture  of  umbrella 
handles  from  the  vegetable  ivory  nut,  began  to  manu- 
facture ivory  buttons  in  Schmolln,  Germany.  As  he 
was  able  to  obtain  financial  backing,  his  business  grew 


176  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

rapidly  and  Schmolln  soon  became  the  center  of  the 
vegetable  ivory  button  industry. 

"Factories  were  established  in  England  in  1862.  The 
first  American  vegetable  ivory  button  factory,  the  Mill 
River  Button  Co.,  was  established  at  Leeds,  Mass.,  in 
1864." 

The  growth  of  this  great  industry  has  been  unusual. 
Today  there  are  over  25  large  well-equipped  factories  in 
the  United  States  alone.  The  use  of  the  vegetable  ivory 
button  is  universal.  It  is  especially  adapted  for  tailored 
garments.  It  has  almost  replaced  the  bone  button  for 
underwear.  It  has  been  colored  and  finished  in  such 
artistic  ways  that  it  is  a  great  favorite  for  women's  and 
children's  clothes. 


Chapter  XXII 
MISCELLANEOUS  KINDS  OF  BUTTONS 

Composition  Buttons 

Composition  buttons  are  the  most  common  substi- 
tutes for  vegetable  ivory  ones.  They  were  first  success- 
fully made  in  1862.  The  variety  of  materials  used  is 
even  greater  than  the  many  firms  that  have  manufac- 
tured them.  Most  of  the  buttons  contain  some 
foundation  material,  like  asbestos  or  lime,  a  natural 
gum  to  hold  the  other  ingredients  together,  and  coloring 
matter.  At  one  time  a  very  satisfactory  composition 
button  was  made  of  Irish  potatoes  and  certain  chemicals. 
The  high  prices  of  potatoes  in  late  years  has  relegated 
this  composition  to  the  annals  of  history. 

The  various  ingredients  are  worked  together  in  the 
same  manner  as  bread  dough,  then  run  through  rollers 
set  to  roll  the  mixture  into  sheets  of  the  desired  thick- 
ness These  sheets  are  cut  into  a  size  suitable  for 
handling  and  taken  to  a  hydraulic  press  that  stamps  out 
a  large  number  of  buttons  at  one  time.  They  are 
finished  buttons,  except  for  a  little  roughness  at  the 
holes  and  around  the  edges  which  must  be  removed 

i77 


178  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Throughout  all  the  processes  up  to  this  point  the 
mixture  is  kept  warm. 

Upon  cooling  the  composition  becomes  hard,  but 
around  each  little  hole  is  a  tiny  little  rim  of  surplus 
material.  When  this  ridge  is  removed  it  is  sure  to 
leave  a  little  indentation  surrounding  the  hole,  an  in- 
fallible mark  by  which  the  composition  button  may 
be  detected. 

Composition  buttons  are  either  packed  in  boxes  or 
sewed  on  cards,  a  dozen  to  a  card.  Great  quantities  go 
to  the  ready-to-wear  trade. 

To  distinguish  the  composition  button  from  the 
vegetable  ivory  button : 

1.  Cut  into  the  button.    If  it  remains  the  same  color 
all  through,  it  is  undoubtedly  composition,  if  it  grows 
whiter  the  farther  in  you  cut  it  is  vegetable  ivory,  be- 
cause the  color  is  mixed  into  the  composition  out  of 
which  the  composition  button  is  made,  while  the  vege- 
table ivory  is  dyed  and  the  color  only  penetrates  a  short 
distance  below  the  surface. 

2.  Observe  the  holes.     If  there  is  an  indentation 
surrounding  the  holes  on  either  the  right  or  wrong  side, 
you  may  be  quite  certain  it  is  composition.    If  the  holes 
are  clear  cut  and  smooth,  it  is  probably  vegetable  ivory, 
certainly  not  a  composition. 

3.  It  is  much  easier  to  break  the  composition  button 
fhan  the   vegetable   ivory  button.      Under   abnormal 


MISCELLANEOUS  KINDS  OF  BUTTONS       179 

conditions  of  heat  and  moisture,  like  dry  cleaning,  a 
composition  button  may  warp. 

Hard  Rubber  Buttons 

In  making  hard  rubber  buttons  the  first  step  is  cut- 
ting the  blanks  out  of  sheet  rubber  of  the  desired 
thickness.  These  blanks  are  then  put  into  molds. 
One  half  of  the  mold  has  a  cavity  to  make  the  shape  of 
the  under  half  of  the  button,  while  the  other  half  has  a 
cavity  with  two  or  four  pins  to  shape  the  upper  half  of 
the  button  and  form  the  holes.  Under  steam  heat  and 
hydraulic  pressure,  these  blanks  are  pressed  into  the 
form  of  the  desired  buttons. 

All  rubber  is  sticky  and  soft  until  it  is  vulcanized. 
(See  page  103.)  In  the  case  of  buttons,  vulcanization 
takes  place  at  the  time  that  they  are  pressed  out.  Three 
things  are  necessary  for  vulcanization :  sulphur,  heat, 
and  moisture.  An  excess  of  sulphur  over  a  given 
amount  makes  hard  rubber.  This  excess  is  present 
in  the  sheet  of  rubber  from  which  the  blanks  are  cut, 
and  when  the  rubber  and  sulphur  are  subjected  to  heat 
and  moisture  in  the  form  of  steam,  the  buttons  are 
vulcanized  and  hardened. 

A  hard  rubber  button  usually  bears  the  words  on  the 
back.  Two  simple  tests  can  also  be  used  in  distinguish- 
ing them :  Rub  the  button  quickly  over  a  piece  of  wool 
and  you  can  easily  distinguish  the  peculiar  rubber  odor. 


180  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Burn  it  and  the  odor  is  sufficiently  characteristic  to  defy 
any  question.  Also  the  line  where  the  mold  joins  on  the 
edge  of  the  button  is  noticeable. 

Horn  Buttons 

There  were  horn  button  makers  in  England  in  the 
year  1777,  so  the  old  Birmingham  (England)  directory 
shows.  But  it  is  to  M.  Emile  Bassot,  in  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century,  that  credit  is  due  for  inventing 
the  present  method  of  manufacture  of  horn  buttons. 
In  principle  it  is  the  same  as  the  method  used  today. 
The  hoofs  or  horn  were  soaked  in  boiling  water  to 
soften,  then  cut  in  segments  of  the  desired  thickness. 
The  button  was  cut,  dyed,  and  formed  into  the  required 
shape  by  hydraulic  pressure. 

Horn  buttons  are  of  a  great  many  different  qualities. 
Some  of  the  highest  grade  buttons  are  made  from  the 
tips  of  the  buffalo  and  deer  horns  and  are  sold  as  high 
as  $12  per  gross  wholesale. 

Bone  Buttons 

Bone  as  a  button  material  is  almost  obsolete.  Only 
the  cheapest  possible  buttons  for  trousers  and  under- 
wear are  now  made  from  bone.  Most  of  the  so-called 
bone  is  vegetable  ivory. 

Galilith 

Galilith  is  a  product  of  creative  chemistry.     It  is 


MISCELLANEOUS  KINDS  OF  BUTTONS       l8l 

made  from  the  casein  of  milk,  and  largely  manufac- 
tured in  Germany.  It  is  imported  into  the  United 
States  in  the  form  of  sheets.  Blanks  for  buttons  are 
cut  out  as  in  the  vegetable  ivory,  and  the  blanks  are 
put  on  a  lathe  that  forms  the  buttons  and  the  holes  are 
drilled  later.  Galilith  comes  in  a  variety  of  colors  and 
some  very  attractive  effects  are  produced.  The  buttons 
resemble  vegetable  ivory  but  they  have  a  more 
translucent  quality.  The  brighter  colors  are  especially 
good. 

Glass  and  Agate  Buttons 

Glass,  agate,  and  jet  buttons  are  practically  all  im- 
ported. Here  and  there  in  button  factories  in  America 
an  isolated  machine  may  be  found.  Agate  or  porcelain, 
before  the  war,  were  largely  manufactured  in  France 
and  Austria.  Glass  buttons  have  been  extensively  made 
in  Austria,  France,  and  in  Birmingham,  England,  but 
Bohemia  is  the  seat  of  the  industry.  The  buttons  are 
usually  made  by  taking  a  rod  of  glass  of  any  color 
desired,  softening  the  end  of  the  rod  by  heat,  and 
pressing  it  into  a  mold.  (See  Figure  18.)  The  shank 
of  wire,  bent  to  make  a  hole,  is  inserted  into  the  mold 
through  an  opening.  After  the  glass  is  hardened  the 
mold  is  removed.  Little  additional  work  is  required  to 
finish,  as  the  hardening  of  the  glass  furnishes  much  of 
tb*  desired  luster. 


1 82  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Vulcanized  Fiber 

Vulcanized  fiber,  more  often  called  "paper,"  buttons 
have  not  been  as  yet  of  large  commercial  value, 
although  we  occasionally  find  them  on  the  cheap  ready- 
to-wear  garments.  It  is  very  possible  that  in  the  near 
future  they  will  be  so  perfected  that  they  will  be  a 
formidable  rival  of  the  composition  and  other  cheaper 
buttons. 

Vulcanized  fiber  is  made  from  paper.  The  desired 
number  of  sheets  or  piles  of  paper  are  run  over  guiding 
cylinders  down  into  a  bath  of  zinc  oxide,  then  between 
heated  rollers.  This  is  called  "laminating,"  by  which 
a  chemical  change  is  started  that  joins  the  many  piles 
of  paper  into  a  tough,  strong,  unified  whole.  Next 
the  zinc  oxide  is  washed  and  soaked  out.  The  fiber 
may  go  through  as  many  as  twenty-five  baths  before 
it  is  dried  and  pressed  or  calendered.  Often  it  takes 
two  or  three  weeks  to  complete  the  processes  of  vul- 
canizing. This  fiber  is  used  in  a  multitude  of  different 
ways,  as  water  buckets,  laundry  hampers,  suit-cases, 
etc.  Buttons  are  stamped  out  under  hydraulic  pressure 
from  stock  of  the  desired  thickness. 

Metal  Buttons 

The  variety  of  buttons  made  from  sheet  metal  is 
very  great,  ranging  in  price  from  the  cheap  trouser 
buttons,  which  are  made  from  a  thin  sheet  of  iron 


MISCELLANEOUS  KINDS  OF  BUTTONS       183 

filled  with  paper  and  then  japanned,  to  the  high-grade 
navy  uniform  buttons  that  sell  in  the  neighborhood  of 
$25  per  gross. 

Thin  sheets  of  soft  iron,  zinc,  or  tin  are  used  for 
the  cheaper  buttons  and  those  which  are  covered  with 
a  fabric.  The  more  expensive  types  are  made  of  nickel, 
silver,  gold,  and  brass.  The  face  or  top  part  of  the 
button  may  be  decorated  and  finished  in  many  ways; 
stamped,  chased,  enameled,  plated,  and  burnished,  so 
the  results  may  vary  from  the  plain  to  the  very 
elaborate. 

All  metal  buttons  are  made  up  of  three  parts :  the 
face,  the  stuffing,  and  the  back.  The  method  of  manu- 
facturing of  the  simple  forms  is  indicative  of  all  types. 

The  metal  blanks  or  shells  for  the  face  and  back 
of  the  buttons  are  cut  out  of  the  sheet  metal.  Then 
the  blanks  are  annealed,  that  is,  heated  in  certain  chem- 
icals and  drawn  up  over  dies  into  the  spherical  shape 
desired  for  the  buttons.  The  face  usually  is  some- 
what spherical  in  shape  and  the  back  flatter,  but  the 
edges  of  each  are  curved  in  in  such  a  way  that  when 
put  into  the  button-making  machine  they  lock  together. 
After  the  blanks  are  annealed,  they  are  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  being  churned  together  with  soap  and  shot 
in  what  looks  like  the  old-fashioned  barrel  churns 
that  were  used  by  our  grandparents.  It  is  necessary 
to  have  the  blanks  perfectly  clean  before  they  are 


184  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

japanned  or  plated  or  otherwise  finished.  The  backs 
are  usually  japanned. 

The  shank  is  made  in  a  number  of  different  ways. 
It  may  be  soldered  on  to  the  back  or  it  may  be  a  loop 
of  wire  or  of  cloth  inserted  through  the  back.  The 
latter  has  the  advantage  of  putting  little  strain  on  the 
cloth  to  which  it  is  sewed,  but  naturally  it  gives  out 
more  quickly  itself. 

After  the  tops  are  plated  and  polished  or  otherwise 
finished  and  the  backs  made,  these  and  the  stuffing, 
pieces  of  cardboard  cut  into  circular  pieces  that  fit 
into  the  top  of  the  button,  are  assembled  and  taken 
to  the  button-making  machine.  The  top  is  first  put 
into  the  machine,  then  one,  two,  or  more  pieces  of 
cardboard,  depending  upon  the  thickness  of  the  button, 
are  placed  into  the  top  and  the  back  laid  in  position. 
The  two  parts  of  the  machine  come  together  so  that 
the  curved-in  edges  of  the  top  and  back  of  the  button 
are  locked  together.  The  button  is  finished.  Cheap, 
flat  trouser-buttons  are  made  of  a  thin  metal  face  and 
back  and  one  thin  layer  of  cardboard  as  stuffing.  The 
holes  are  punched  in. 

Cloth-Covered  Buttons 

Cloth-covered  buttons  are  made  over  a  metal  founda- 
tion. The  difference  in  expense  between  the  lower 
and  higher  priced  cloth-covered  buttons  lies  in  the 


MISCELLANEOUS  KINDS  OF  BUTTONS       185 

cost  of  the  fabric  used  and  the  shape,  some  requiring 
more  work  to  make.  The  cost  of  small  machines  for 
making  cloth-covered  buttons  is  within  the  means  of 
any  domestic  art  school  or  store.  The  metal  forms 
for  the  backs  and  tops  and  stuffing  can  be  purchased 
from  factories  that  make  buttons.  By  having  such  a 
machine  in  a  community  it  is  possible  with  little  expense 
to  have  buttons  to  match  any  dress  made  from  scraps 
of  the  material. 

History 

Birmingham  was  the  early  seat  of  the  metal  button 
industry.  Although  metal  buttons  were  made  earlier 
than  1807,  they  then  became  a  very  important  branch 
of  the  button-making  industry.  At  that  time  R.  San- 
der, a  Dane,  invented  the  method  now  used,  namely 
the  two  disks  of  metal  locked  together  by  having  the 
edges  turned  back  on  each  other  and  enclosing  a  filling 
of  cardboard  or  cloth.  In  this  country  Waterbury, 
Conn.,  is  the  center  of  the  metal  button  manufacture. 

Celluloid 

The  humble  celluloid  button  and  pin  that  until  the 
day  of  the  Great  War  was  cherished  by  boys  as  deco- 
rative badges  or  as  specimens  for  a  collection,  arose 
suddenly  to  a  high  place  in  our  national  life.  It 
officiated  at  every  big  drive  for  Liberty  bonds  or  war 


186  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

savings  stamps  and  was  present  in  great  evidence  on 
every  tag  day.  It  has  come  to  signify  our  American 
spirit  of  publicity. 

This  type  of  button  is  made  like  the  metal  except 
that  the  celluloid  is  substituted  for  the  upper  disk  of 
metal  and  the  under  piece  of  metal  may  be  either  a 
metal  rim  over  which  the  celluloid  is  drawn  and  into 
which  a  wire  with  a  pin  as  a  part  of  it  is  slipped,  or 
else  the  under  piece  may  be  a  cuff  button  attachment 
that  will  button  into  the  lapel  of  a  coat. 

The  fact  that  celluloid  can  be  dyed  and  colored  so 
perfectly  has  been  one  of  the  reasons  that  it  has  been 
used  for  this  type  of  button.  This  characteristic  also 
lends  celluloid  admirably  in  the  making  of  fancy  but- 
tons to  match  the  color  of  suits  and  coats.  Celluloid 
buttons  made  after  the  same  fashion  as  metal 
buttons  were  quite  in  demand  a  few  years  ago.  They 
furnish  an  excellent  example  of  the  additional  items 
in  the  cost  of  production  of  fancy  or  novelty  buttons. 
The  celluloid  comes  to  the  button  factory  in  sheets.  It 
must  be  colored.  Only  one  color  can  be  put  on  at  a 
time  and  that  by  hand  with  the  use  of  a  stencil.  Each 
stencil  must  be  designed  and  made,  another  expense. 
Next  the  celluloid  is  cut  into  blank  and  drawn  up  over  a 
die  into  the  desired  shape.  Then  the  various  parts — 
the  celluloid  face,  the  stuffing,  and  the  back  of  metal 
with  the  wire  shank — are  assembled  and  the  button 


MISCELLANEOUS  KINDS  OF  BUTTONS       187 

put  together.  Here  the  labor  includes  the  handling  of 
at  least  two  or  three  more  pieces  than  a  metal  button. 
First  a  piece  of  paper,  silvered  or  gilt,  must  be  put 
under  the  celluloid  to  add  to  the  attractive  appearance. 
More  pieces  of  stuffing  must  be  put  in  than  in  a  metal 
button,  thus  more  labor.  Taken  all  in  all  the  cost  of 
producing  a  fancy  celluloid  button  is  very  expensive, 
due  to  the  comparatively  small  number  produced,  the 
added  cost  of  hand  processes  that  are  not  usually  in- 
volved or  else  would  be  taken  care  of  by  machinery 
if  a  large  number  were  made,  and  the  great  cost  of 
distribution. 

Bachelor  Buttons 

Bachelor  buttons  are  especially  designed  to  meet 
the  needs  of  that  large  class  of  men  who  do  not  enjoy 
sewing  on  buttons.  They  are  usually  found  on  ready- 
to-wear  garments.  The  button  is  of  metal  and  made 
in  two  parts.  The  base  is  either  riveted  or  otherwise 
securely  fastened  to  the  garment.  The  ball  or  button 
part  is  separate,  and  by  one  of  a  number  of  ingenious 
mechanical  devices  can  be  fastened  firmly  to  the  base 
and  easily  removed. 


Part  V 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  OF  NOTION 
DEPARTMENT 

DIVISIONS 

A.  Sewing  Tools  and  Supplies 

B.  Dress  Accessories  and  Findings 

C.  Hair  Goods 

D.  Shoe  Supplies 

E.  Buttons 

A  —  SEWING  TOOLS  AND  SUPPLIES 
i.  Articles 

(a)  Shears  and  Scissors 

(b)  Needles  (Hand  and  Machine) 

(c)  Common  Pins 

(d)  Thread 

Cotton    (Sewing,    Basting,    Darning, 

Millinery) 
Silk    (Sewing,    Darning,    Buttonhole 

Twist) 
Linen 
Worsted  (Darning) 

(e)  Thimbles 

(f)  Miscellaneous  Small  Articles 

Tape  Lines 
Bodkins 

Thread  Winders 
Tatting  Shuttles 
Darners 

1 88 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  189 

Stilettos 

Hem  Gauges 

Tracing  Wheels 

Emeries 

Wax 

Sewing  Machine  Belts 

Machine  Oil 
2.  Materials 
Steel 
Iron 
Brass 
Aluminum 
Silver 
Nickel 
Tin 
Cotton 
Linen 
Silk 
Wool 
Wood 
Celluloid 
Emery 
Whale  Oil 
Petroleum 
Beeswax 
Rubber 
Leather 
Bone 

B  —  DRESS  ACCESSORIES  AND  FINDINGS 
i.  Tapes,  Braids,  and  Beltings 
(a)  Articles 

Feather- Stitch  Braid 

Beading 

Bobbin  Tape 


190  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Cotton  Tape 

Stickerei  Tape 

Cotton  Seam  Binding 

Cotton  Bias  Folds 

Taffeta  Seam  Binding 

Corset  Tape 

Initial  Tape 

Buttonhole  Tape 

Hook  and  Eye  Tape 

Eyelet  Tape 

Lingerie  Tape 

Prussian  Binding 

Lingerie  Braid 

Artificial  Silk  Binding  Braid 

Horsehair  or  Pyroxylin  Braid 

Worsted  Skirt  Braid 

Soutache  Braid 

Rickrack  Braid 

Artificial  Silk  Middy  Lace 

Shoe  Lace 

Stickerei  Braid 

Corset  Lace 

Serge  Belting 

Heavy  Woven  Belting 

Girdle  Foundations 
(b)  Materials 

Cotton 

Linen 

Silk 

Wool 

Horsehair  or  Pyroxylin 

Steel 

Featherbone 
2.  Bonings  and  Stays 
(a)  Articles 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  191 

Whalebone 

Featherbone 

Celluloid  Bones 

Corset    Steels     (Side,    Back,    Front, 

Bonings) 

Collar  Bones  and  Supports 
Collar  Frames 
Net  Guimpes 
(b)  Materials 

Featherbone 
Whalebone 
Steel 
Celluloid 
Textile  Coverings 

3.  Elastic  and  Rubber  Goods 

(a)  Articles 

(1)  Woven  Elastic 

Garter  and  Hose  Supporter 

Hat  and  Fancy 

Corset 

Girdle 

(2)  Braided    Elastic    (Round,    Flat, 

Oval) 

(3)  Dress  Shields 

Rubber 

Balata 

Rubber  Water-Proof  Cloth 

Pyroxylin  Water-Proof  Cloth 

(4)  Sanitary  Goods 

Belts 

Aprons 

Napkins 

(b)  Materials 


192  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Rubber 

Balata 

Pyroxylin 

Cotton 

Silk 

4.  Pins,  Hooks  and  Eyes,  and  Snap  Fasteners 

(a)  Articles 

Safety  Pins 
Shield  Pins 
Fancy  Headed  Pins 
Hat  Pins 
Baby  Pins 
Lingerie  Slides 
Hooks  and  Eyes 
Snap  Fasteners 

(b)  Materials 

Brass 

Steel 

Iron 

Tin 

Silver 

Gold 

Nickel 

Jet 

Glass 

C  —  HAIR  GOODS 
I.  Articles 

(a)  Imitation  Shell  Goods 
Side-Combs 
Back-Combs 
Barrettes 
Hairpins 
[(b)  Wire  Hairpins 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  193 

(c)  Nets 

(d)  Curlers  and  Curling  Irons 
2.  Materials 

Celluloid 

Horn 

Iron 

Steel 

Nickel 

Brass 

Lead 

Human  Hair 

Silk 

Leather 

Wood 

Rubber 

D  —  SHOE  SUPPLIES 

1.  Articles 

Brushes  (Hair,  Dauber,  Felt) 

Buttons 

Horns 

Buttonhooks 

Slipper  Trees 

Dressings 

Polishes  (Paste,  Liquid,  Powder) 

2.  Materials 

Wood 

Wool-Felt 

Cotton 

Bristles  and  Hair 

Sheepskin 

Iron 

Steel 

Silver 

Nickel 


194  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

Celluloid 

Oil 

Wax 

Vegetable  Ivory 

Composition  Paper 

Turpentine 

Alcohol 

Shellac 

Dyes 

Soap 

Chalk 

E  —  BUTTONS 

1.  Kinds 

Underwear 

Dress 

Coat 

Shoe 

Pants 

Collar 

2.  Style 

Holes  (2-4) 
Self-Shank 
Wire  Shank 

3.  Sizes :  3  to  50  Line 

4.  Material 

Pearl 

Fresh  Water 

Salt  Water 

White 

Pink 

Smoked 

Roman 
Bone 
Silver 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK  195 

Brass 

Wood 

French  Gilt 

Gunmetal 

Steel 

Rubber 

Glass 

Enamel 

Tortoise  Shell 

Anchor 

Composition 

Porcelain 

China 

Bronze 

Horn 

Vegetable  Ivory 

Jet 

Rhinestone 

Mother-of-Pearl 

Imitation  Jewels 

Amber 

Onyx 

Jade 

Ivory 

Cameo 

Scotch  Pebbles 

Galilith 

Fabric 

Crochet 

Linen 

Lace 

Velvet 

Grosgrain 

Satin 


196  NOTION  DEPARTMENT 

5.  Decoration 

Dresden 

Printed 

Hand-Painted 

Rimmed 

Inlaid 

Molded  Raised  Figures 

Cut 

6.  Colors 

Black 

White 

Staple — Decided  by  Popular  Colors 

Combinations 

F  —  SLIDES 
Jet 

Rhinestone 
Pearl 

White 

Smoked 
Silver 

G  —  MOLDS 
Bone 
Wood 


INDEX 


AGATE  BUTTONS,  181 
AMERICAN  THREAD  Co.,  37 
ARTIFICIAL    SILK,    78-80    (See    also 
Silk  Manual) 


B 


BACHELOR  BUTTONS,  127,  187 
BALATA,  roo,  102,  108,  109 
BARRETTES,  134 
BEADING,  66,  71 
BEESWAX,  62 
BELDING  BROTHERS,  47 
BELTING, 

curved,  82 

girdle  foundations,  81,  84 

heavy  woven,  82 

serge,  81 

types,  8 1 

BELTS,  SEWING-MACHINE,  62 
BETWEENS,  NEEDLES,  21 
BINDING, 

braid,  75,  80 

Prussian,  74,  88 

seam,  67,  72 
BOBBIN  TAPE,  66,  71 
BODKINS,  58 
BOEPPLE,  J.  F.,  162 
BONE  BUTTONS,  180 
BONINGS  AND  STAYS, 

celluloid,  86,  92,  93,  94 

corset  steels,  86,  92 

featherbone,  85,  88,  89,  90,  91 

importance,  85 


BONINGS  AND  STAYS — Continued 

types,  85 

whalebone,  85,  86,  87 
BOYE  AND  CROWLEY  NEEDLE  OUTFITS, 

23 

BRAIDING,  ORIGIN,  75 
BRAIDS, 

decorative,  75,  80 

flat,  76 

horsehair,  78,  80 

lacers,  75,  79,  80 

lingerie,  75,  80 

manufacture,  76 

materials,  77 

rickrack,  77.  80 

skirt,  80 

soutache,  80 

stiffening,  75,  78,  80 

tubular,  76 

types,  75,  80 

BRAINERD  AND  ARMSTRONG,  47 
BRASS,  28,  32,  52,  53,  in,  ii2,  114. 
116,  117  (For  further  description 
of  brass,  see  Jewelry  Manual) 
BRONZE,  16,  26,  33 
BRYSON  NEEDLE  CABINET,  23 
BUTTON  FINISHES,  173 
BUTTONHOLE  TAPE,  67,  73 
BUTTONHOOKS,  147 
BUTTON- MAKING  IN  UNITED  STATES, 

157 
BUTTONS, 

agate,  181 

bone,  180 

celluloid,  185 

cloth-covered,  184 


197 


198 


INDEX 


BUTTONS — Continued 
composition,  177 
diamond,  157 
galilith,  1 80 
glass,  181 
hard  rubber,  179 
history,  156 
horn,  180 
materials,  ISS 
metal,  182 

methods  of  attaching,  156 
pearl  (See  "Pearl  Buttons") 
shoe,  145 
sizes,  174 
types,  ISS 
vegetable    ivory    (See    "Vegetable 

Ivory  Buttons") 
vulcanized  fiber,  182 


CELLULOID, 

belting,  stays,  and  collar  supports, 
84,  86,  94 

bodkins,  58 

bonings,  86,  92,  93,  94 

buttons,  126,  185 

combs,  131 

ringer  shields,  56 

manufacture,  129 

shoe  horns,  146 

stilettos,  59 

tatting  shuttles,  59 

thimbles,  52,  54 

thread  winders,  58 

trade  names,  131 
CHENILLE  NEEDLES,  21 
CHINESE  INVENTIONS  AND  PRODUCTS, 

16,  26,  46,  139,  143 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  STOCK,  2,  188-196 
CLEANING  PREPARATIONS,  SHOES,  149 
CLOTH-COVERED  BUTTONS,  184 
COATS,  J.  P.  Co.,  37 
COLLAR, 

featherbone,  94 


COLLAR — Continued 

frames,  94 

stays,  celluloid,  94 

supports,  wire,  93 
COMBS, 

comparison,  132 

cut  tooth,  132 

decoration,  133 

finishing,  134 

grailing,  133 

pressed  or  molded,  132 

sawed  tooth,  131 

side  or  back,  131 

COMMON  PINS  (See  "Pins,  Common") 
COMPOSITION  BUTTONS,  177 
CORDINGS,  125 
CORSET, 

elastics,  96,  97 

laces,  77,  80 

steels,  86,  92 

tape,  67 

CORTICELLI  SPOOL  SlLK  Co.,  47 

COTTON    (See     Cotton     and     Linen 

Manual) 

CREWEL  NEEDLES,  21 
CROWLEY  NEEDLES,  20,  21 
CUFF  AND  COLLAR  BUTTONS, 

celluloid,  126 

metal,  126 

mother-of-pearl,  126 

porcelain  and  bone,  126 
CURVED  BELTINGS,  82 


DARNERS, 

glove,  59 

needles,  21 

stocking,  59 

DECORATIVE  BRAID,  75,  80 
DEPARTMENT  OF  STORE,  DIVISIONS,  3 
DESIGN, 

warp,  67,  69 

weft,  67,  69,  70 
DONATH,  HERMAN,  175 


INDEX 


199 


DRESS  ACCESSORIES,  64 
DRESS  SHIELDS, 

balata,  100.  102,  108,  109 

characteristics,  100 

comparison,  105 

coverings,  107 

manufacture,  102 

materials,  101 

pyroxylin,  100,  IOS,  109 

rubber,  100,  101,  108,  109 

rubber  coated  cloth,  100,  104,  108, 
109 

sewing  in,  108 

shapes  and  styles,  106,  107 

sizes,  106 

standard  makes,  109 

types,  too 

washing ,  108 
DYES  FOR  SHOES,  152 


E 


EGYPTIAN  COTTON,  35,  37  (See  also 

Cotton  and  Linen  Manual) 
ELASTICS, 
braided, 

materials,  98 
uses,  98 
comparison  of  woven  and  braided, 

98 

uses.  99 
woven, 
corset,  97 
fancy,  97 

garter  and  hose  supporter,  96 
girdle,  97 
kinds,  96 
materials,  96 

ELECTRIC  HAIR  CURLERS,  141 
EMBOSSED  FINISH,  174 
EMERI,  CAPE,  61 
EMERIES,  6r 
EMERY, 
source,  61 
use,  61 


ENGLISH  PRODUCTS,  19,  26,  28,  55, 121 
EYELET  TAPE,  74 

F 

FALSE  LENO,  68 
FEATHERBONE, 

characteristics,  89 

covered  and  uncovered,  90 

description,  88 

methods  of  manufacture,  88 

uses,  90,  91 

FEATHER-STITCH  BRAID,  66,  71 
FIBERLOID,  131 
FILLED    NAME    FINISH,    VEGETABLE 

IVORY  BUTTONS,  174 
FINDINGS,  64 
FINGER  SHIELDS, 

celluloid,  56 

rubber,  56 
FORGED  STEEL     (See     "Shears     and 

Scissors") 


GALILITH,  180 

GARTER  AND  HOSE  SUPPORTERS,  96 

GERMAN  SILVER,  53 

GIRDLE  ELASTICS,  96,  97 

GIRDLE  FOUNDATIONS,  81,  84 

GLACIS  THREAD,  35,  39 

GLASS  BUTTONS,  181 

GLASS  EDGE  FINISH,  173 

GLOVE  DARNERS,  59 

GRAILING  COMBS,  133 

GUIMPES,  94 


HAIR  CURLERS,  140 
electric,  141 
horn,  141 
kid,  141 
lead.  141 
rubber,  141,  143 


200 


INDEX 


HAIR  CURLING  IRONS,  141 

HAIR  GOODS,  IMITATION  SHELL,  129 

HAIR  NETS, 

human  (See  "Human  Hair  Nets") 

silk, 

manufacture,  139 
styles,  139 

types,  137 
HAIRPINS, 

horn,  136 

how  sold,  136 

imitation  shell,  I3S 

sizes,  136 

wire,  136 

HARD  RUBBER  BUTTONS,  179 
HAT  ELASTICS,  96,  97.  98 
HAT  PINS,  115 

HEAVY  WOVEN  BELTING,  81,  82 
HEINISCH,  17 
HEM  GAUGES,  60 
HEMINWAY,    M.    &    SON    SILK   Co., 

47 

HENRY  VIII,  34 
HEVEA  BRAZILIENSIS,  101 

HlLLE,  JOHANN,  1 75 

HISTORY  OF, 

braiding,  75 

buttons,  156 

hooks  and  eyes,  120 

needles,  25 

pearl  buttons,  162 

safety  pins,  113 

sewing  cotton,  40 

shears  and  scissors,  16 

thimbles,  55 

vegetable  ivory  buttons,  175 
HOOKS  AND  EYES, 

comparison  of  brass  and  iron,  117 

finishing,  117 

history,  120 

how  sold,  no 

hump,  121 

manufacture,  116 

sewing  on,  120 

sizes,  119 


HOOKS  AND  EYES — Continued 

styles,  118 

types,  116 

HOOK  AND  EYE  TAPE,  67,  73,  120 
HORN, 

buttons,  1 80 

hair  curlers,  141 

hairpins,  136 

HORSEHAIR  BRAIDS,  78,  80 
HUMAN  HAIR  NETS,  137 

cap, 138 

colors,  138 

fringe,  137 

sizes,  137 

sources,  139 


INITIAL  TAPE,  67,  73 
INTAGLIO,  174 
IRON, 

adamantine,  28,  30,  32,  33 

cast,  5,  6 

malleable,    6   (See    also    Housefur 

nishings  Manual) 
IVORY, 

English,  131 

French, 131 

Parisian,  131 

pyralin,  131 


JACQUARD  LOOM,  68 

K 
KIRBY  BEARD  NEEDLES,  20 

L 

LACERS,  75,  77,  80 

LENO  WEAVE,  67,  68 

LINEN  THREAD  (See  "  Thread,  Linen") 


INDEX 


201 


LINGERIE, 

braid,  75,  80 
slides  or  clasps,  114 
tape,  74 

LOFLINGTON,  JOHN,  55 
LOOM, 

Jacquard,  68 

narrow  fabric,  65  (See  also  Cotton 

and  Linen  and  Silk  Manuals) 
illustration,  70 

M 

MACHINE    NEEDLES    (See    "Needles, 

Machine") 
MACHINE  OIL, 

adulterants,  63 

sperm  oil,  62 

stainless  oil,  63 
MATERIALS    (See    "Classification    of 

Stock") 
MERCERIZED  COTTON,  40,  43,  71,  72, 

74,  77,  80 

MERCERIZED  THREAD,  40 
METAL  BUTTONS,  182 
MIDDY  LACES,  77,  78,  79,  80 
MILLINERY  NEEDLES,  21 
MILWARD  NEEDLES,  20,  21 
MOCK  LENO  WEAVE,  67,  68 
MUSSEL- FISHING,  159 


N 


NARROW  FABRIC  LOOMS  (See  "Loom, 

Narrow  Fabric") 
NECK  BANDS,  127 
NEEDLES, 
calyx  eye,  21 
Crowley,  20,  21 
hand-sewing  types,  21 
history  of,  25 
Kirby  Beard,  20 
machine, 

American,  24 

Boye  and  Crowley  outfits,  23 


NEEDLES — Continued 
machines — Continued 

Bryson  cabinet,  23 

Domestic,  24 

Eldridge,  24 

Household,  24 

Howe,  24 

makes,  22,  24 

manufacture  of,  2$ 

New  Home,  24 

setting,  24 

Singer,  24 

sizes,  23 

Standard,  24 

White,  24 

Wilcox  and  Gibbs,  24 

Wilson,  24 

manufacture  for  hand-sewing,  18 
materials,  1 8 
Milward,  20,  21 
Roberts,  20,  21 
sizes,  21 
tests,  20 
types,  1 8,  20 
NOTION  DEPARTMENT,  i 


OIL,  SEWING  MACHINE  (See  "  Machine 
Oil") 


PAPER  BUTTONS,  182 
PEARL  BUTTONS, 

distinguishing  salt  water  and  fresh 

water  pearl,  168 
first  factory  in  U.  S.,  162 
fresh  water, 

cleaning  and  sorting  shells,  161 

history  of  industry,  162 

methods  of  fishing,  159 

source  of  raw  material,  158 
grading,  169 
method  of  manufacture,  166 


202 


INDEX 


PEARL  BUTTONS — Continued 
salt  water, 

method  of  fishing,  165 

sources  of  raw  material,  164 
smoked  pearl,  169 
PINS, 

baby, 114 
common,  28 

history  of ,  33 

materials,  28 

methods  of  manufacture,  29 

qualities,  33 

sizes,  31 

types,  28 

uses  of  different  types,  32 
fancy  headed,  115 
hair  (See  "Hairpins") 
hat  and  flower,  115 
safety, 

brass,  in 

history  of,  113 

manufacture,  113 

materials,  in 

qualities,  113 

sizes,  113 

steel,  in 

types,  in 
shield,  114 
PRESSED  FINISH,  VEGETABLE  IVORY 

BUTTONS,  173 
PRUSSIAN  BINDING,  74,  88 
PURCHASER,  SUGGESTIONS  TO,  14,  32, 

39,  54,  70,  106,  124,  133,  168,  174 
PYROXYLIN,  78,  80,  90,  105  (See  also 

Millinery  Manual) 
coated  cloth,  105,  109 

R 

RICHARDSON  SILK  Co.,  47 
RICKRACK  BRAID,  77,  80 
ROBERTS  NEEDLES,  20,  21 
RUBBER, 

para, 101 

plantation,  101 

vulcanization  of,  103 


RUBBER  COATED  CLOTH,  104,  108, 

109 

RUBBER  GOODS,  DRESS  SHIELDS,  100 
RUBBER  HAIR  CURLERS,  143 


SAFETY  PINS  (See  "Pins,  Safety") 
SANDBLAST  FINISH,  VEGETABLE  IVORY 

BUTTONS,  173 

SANITARY  APRONS,  109         • 
SANITARY  BELTS,  109,  no 
SANITARY  GOODS,  109 
SANITARY  NAPKINS,  109,  no 
SANITARY  SHEETING,  109 
SCISSORS     (See    "Shears     and    Scis- 
sors") 

SEA  ISLAND  COTTON,  35,  37,  77  (See 
also  Cotton  and  Linen  Manual) 
SEAM  BINDING,  67,  72 
SERGE  BELTING,  81 
SEWING-  MACHINE, 

belts,  62 

needles,  22 

thread,  40 

SEWING  TOOLS  AND  SUPPLIES,  4 
SHARPS,  NEEDLES,  21 
SHEARS  AND  SCISSORS, 

assembling  the  blades,  10 

bronze  scissors,  16 

care  of,  12,  14 

cast  iron  and  cast  steel,  6 

comparison  between  forged  and  laid 
steel,  12 

differences,  5 

forged  steel,  7,  12 

grinding,  10 

hardening  and  tempering,  9 

history  of,  16 

materials,  6 

modern  industry,  17 

seconds,  13 

steel  laid,  8,  12 

tests,  13 

types,  s,  14 


INDEX 


203 


SHIELD  PINS,  114 

SHIELDS,  DRESS  (See  "  Dress  Shields") 
SHOE  AND  SLIPPER  TREES,  147 
SHOE  BRUSHES, 

bristle  or  hair, 
manufacture,  143 
sources  of  bristles,  143 

daubers,  145 

felt,  145 

types,  143 
SHOE  BUTTONS,  145 
SHOE  DRESSINGS, 

cleaning  preparations,  149 

coloring  and   dyeing   preparations, 
152 

enameling  preparations,  152 

liquid  polishes,  151 

paste  polishes,  150 

polishing  preparations,  150 

types,  148 
SHOE  HORNS,  146 
SHOE  LACES,  77,  80 
SHOE  POLISHES,  151 

tests,  152 

SHOE  SUPPLIES,  143 
SILK  (See  Silk  Manual) 
SKIRT  BRAIDS,  80 
SNAP  FASTENERS,  121 

grades,  124 

sizes,  123 

"stud"  and  "socket,"  122 

suggestions       regarding       different 

types,  122 

SNAP  FASTENER  TAPE,  74 
SPERM  OIL,  62 
SPERM  WHALE,  63 
STAY  TAPE,  66,  71 
STEEL, 

cast,  5,  6   (See  also  Housefurnish- 
ings  Manual) 

crucible  carbon,  6,  25 

forged     (See     "Shears     and     Scis- 
sors") 

laid  (See  "Shears  and  Scissors") 
STEELS,  CORSET,  86,  92 


STICKEREI, 

braid,  80 

tape,  66, 72 

STIFFENING  BRAIDS,  75,  78,  80 
STILETTOS,  59 
STOCK,  CLASSIFICATION  OF,  2,  188-196 


TAGUA  PALM  TREE  (Vegetable  Ivory), 

170 
TAPE  LINES, 

cloth,  57 

oil  cloth,  57 

steel,  57 
TAPES, 

beading,  66,  71 

bobbin,  66,  71 

buttonhole,  67,  73 

corset,  67 

description  and  uses,  71 

eyelet,  74 

feather-stitch  braid,  66,  71 

hook  and  eye,  67,  73,  120 

how  to  determine  quality,  70 

illustration  of,  66 

initial,  67,  73 

lingerie,  74 

manufacture,  65 

Prussian  binding,  74,  88 

seam  binding,  67,  72 

snap  fastener,  74 

stay,  66,  71 

stickerei,  66,  72 

types,  65 

varieties,  66 

illustration,  74 
TAPESTRY  NEEDLES,  21 
TATTING  SHUTTLES,  59 
TESTS, 

for  distinguishing  brass  from  steel,  3  2 

for  distinguishing  ateel  from  iron,  33 

for  needles,  20 

for  "seconds,"  13 

for  shoe  buttons,  145 


204 


INDEX 


THIMBLES,  5* 

aluminum,  52,  53 

brass,  52 

celluloid,  52,  54 

German  silver,  52,  53 

gold,  52,  53 

history  of,  55 

materials,  52 

methods  of  manufacture,  52 

plating,  53 

silver,  52,  53 

sizes,  55 

steel,  52,  53 

uses  of  different  types,  54 
THREAD,  COTTON, 

basting,  42 

darning,  42 

for  machine  use,  40 

makes,  37 

mercerized,  40,  43  (For  merceriza- 
tion  see  also  Cotton  and  Linen 
Manual) 

millinery,  43 

sizes,  38 

soft  and  glac6  finishes,  39 

standards,  37 

types,  35 

waxed,  40 
THREAD,  LINEN,  49 

carpet,  50 
THREAD,  SILK, 

buttonhole  twist,  49 

darning,  48 

dyeing,  47 

for  machine  use,  47 

manufacture,  46 

manufacturers,  47 

reeling  raw  silk,  45 

silk  importation,  46 

the  silk  worm,  44 

types,  44 

THREAD  WINDERS,  58 
THREAD,     WORSTED     AND     WOOLEN 

DARNING  YARN,  50 
TRACING  WHEELS,  60 


TREES  FOR  SHOES  AND  SLIPPERS,  147 
U 

UNITED  STATES, 

inventions,  34,  88,  113,  121 
manufactures,  5,  12,  17,  24,  26,  34, 

37,  41,  47,  88,  114,  121,  157,  162 
UPLAND    COTTON,    35,    37    (See   alsc 
Cotton  and  Linen  Manual) 


VEGETABLE  IVORY  BUTTONS, 

finishes,  173 

growth  of  industry,  176 

history,  175 

how  to  distinguish,  174 

manufacture,  171 

source  of  raw  material 
VULCANIZATION  OF  RUBBER,  103 
VULCANIZED  FIBER  BUTTONS,  182 

w 

WALOHN,  92 

WARP,  DESIGNS,  67,  69 

WATER-PROOFED  CLOTH,  104,  108 

WAX,  62 

WEAVES, 

leno,  67,  68 

mock  leno,  67,  68 
WEFT  DESIGNS,  67,  69,  70 
WEIGHTS,  DRESS,  125 
WHALE,  RIGHT,  88 
WHALEBONE, 

method  of  sewing  into  waist,  87 

nature,  86 

source,  86 

WORSTED  AND  WOOLEN  YARN,  50 
WRIGHT,  LEMUEL,  34 


YARN,  WORSTED  AND  WOOLEN,  50 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
HIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  5O  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $I.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


• 


TSSepWF 


D  21-100m-12,  '43  (8796s) 


Y.B  65030 


"G7892 


Lf 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


i 


